History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c16: 3.5 Glass

History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c16

Language: English

v1.c16.s1 Nature of glass objects during the First Millennium B.C. — 7 parts
v1.c16.s2 Glass Technology During Early Centuries of Christian Era — 5 parts
v1.c16.s3 Manufacture — 5 parts
v1.c16.s4 Characteristic Features of Ancient Indian Glasses — 12 parts
v1.c16.s5 Descriptions Of The Samples — 1 part
v1.c16.s6 Colouring Agents — 35 parts
v1.c16.s7 Early Centres of Glass Manufacture in India — 2 parts
v1.c16.s8 Tools used in fabrication of Glass objects — 29 parts
v1.c16.s9 References — 33 parts

3.5 Glass

v1.c16.1

Origin of glass is shrouded in mystery and it is difficult to pin point the exact place and date of its birth. Pliny the elder, attributes the discovery of glass making to the Phoenician merchants of 6th century B.C. who made a chance discovery while cooking meal on the sandy shores of the river Belus near Ptolemias. Lacking stones to support their pots they used lumps of natron, which combined with sand and turned into glass under the impact of heat of the kitchen fire. This legend has wide popularity.

v1.c16.2

However, archaeological studies have clearly proved that ancient civilization of Mesopotamia, Egypt and India made various siliceous and glazed materials including faience (glazed siliceous ware), glazed pottery and glass. Earliest faience and glazed steatite from Mesopotamia is datable to 5th millennium B.C. Faience has powdered quartz core with an over glaze, which is a soda-lime-silica glass, and is isotropic in nature (Marshall 1931).

v1.c16.3

There is controversial evidence of glass from Ancient Egypt datable to 3500 B.C. found at Naqada. However, glass was definitely known and deliberately made by Mesopotamians and Egyptians during 3rd millennium B.C.

v1.c16.4

Archaeometric studies reveal that glass gradually evolved through experimentation by Early man with various siliceous materials with the help of pyro-technology. Vitreous paste, frit, faience, glazed pottery - the cousins of glass, are the evolutionary stages, finally culminating in glass making. It is the first product of composite pyro-technology.

v1.c16.5

Whether the Harappans i.e. people of the Indus civilization knew glass making is debatable. However they made bangles, beads and other objects of faience (glazed siliceous ware) and glazed pottery in 3rd millennium B.C. They knew the art and science of colouring glazed layer both blue and red with cupric and cuprous copper (Bhardwaj 1985).

v1.c16.6

Earliest Glass Objects

v1.c16.7

Recently glass bangles in black and sky blue colour have been reported from Bhagwanpura (Haryana) in an overlap phase of Harappans and painted greyware people, datable to 2nd millennium B.C.(Bhardwaj 1987).

v1.c16.8

Important Archaeological sites yielding glass and the nature of Glass

v1.c16.9

Archaeological excavations have brought to light glass objects mainly beads, bangles, seals and ornamental pieces from sites including Atranjikhera, Hastinapur, Ropar, Alamgirpur, Ahicchatra, Sravasti, Kausambi, Rajghat, Kopia, Ujjain, Maski, Maheshwar, Prakash, Brahmagiri, Kondapur, Amravati, Nevasa, Tripuri Nasik, Patliputra, Candravalli, Sisupalgarh, Candraketugarh, Arikamedu, Nalanda, Bellary, Kolhapur etc (Fig 1). The earliest objects are confined to beads and bangles of brown, black and dark green colour. The limited chemical analysis show that these are low in silica. Soda is the predominant alkali, though potash is also present. Iron is the main colouring agent. Use of chromium as colourant is reported from Atranjikhera. Annealing is supposed to have been done. In general the objects are confined to beads and bangles. A piece of a glass container is reported from Atranjikhera, district Etah,(U.P.) datable around 1000 B.C. Atranjikhera evidence is an exception (Agarwal 1983).

v1.c16.10

Around 600 B.C., there was proliferation in glass industry. Glass beads and bangles are reported from a large number of sites of N.B.P. ware phase i.e. Mauryan period. In

v1.c16.12

Fig.1. Glass bangles from Prakash, Dt. Dhulia, Maharashtra. (Courtesy : H.G.Dikshit, History of Glass). No.1 Pd.II (700 B.C. - 100 B.C.) Nos.2-7 Pd.III (100 B.C. - A.D.600) Nos.8-9 Pd.IV (A.D.600 - A.D.1100)

v1.c16.13

addition glass seals and ear-reels are also reported. Another feature of this period is the use of copper red glass for beads. Recently a broken copper red glass tile (Fig 2) has been reported from Khairadih (Dist. Basti) excavated by B.H.U.

v1.c16.14

The colouring agents are confined to ferrous and ferric iron and cuprous and cupric copper.

Nature of glass objects during the First Millennium B.C.

v1.c16.s1.1

In the first half of the period glass was a scarce material and the objects were confined to glass beads and bangles.

v1.c16.s1.2

In the second half of the first millennium B.C. glass industry made some advance. Important finds of Mauryan period include glass seals and sealings with Brahmi characters. These are reported from archaeological sites of Kumrahar and Bulandibagh. The colours are confined to blue and green. These are cast in moulds. A glass seal of 2.4 cm square and 10 mm thick, amber in colour with the figure of an elephant is reported from Maheshwar (Madhya Pradesh). A similar seals has been reported from Ujjain. Three glass seals, locally manufactured have been reported from Taxila (Dikshit 1965 and 1969). Glass discs and ear reels are the other objects of interest. Black glass discs with legend in Brahmi character in red glass are housed in the museums of Patna, Banaras and Allahabad (Fig 3). These discs have been fabricated by pulling large size glass canes. Ear reels in good number have been reported from Ujjain, Maheshwar, Nasik, Kaundinyapur (Vidharba). These are coloured white, vermillion, opaque blue and green.

v1.c16.s1.4

Fig.2. Glass Tile - Copper Red Glass from Khairadih c. A.D.100. (reproduced from Ancient India nos.20-21)

v1.c16.s1.5

1 2 3 4 5

v1.c16.s1.6

6 7

v1.c16.s1.7

8 9 10 11 12 13

v1.c16.s1.8

Fig.3. Early Indian Glass Seals and Sealings - 1-5 Patna (Excavations at Kumrahar and Bulandibagh) 6. Maheshwar 7. M.G.Dikshit Collection. 8 to 13 Taxila Excavations

Glass Technology During Early Centuries of Christian Era

v1.c16.s2.1

Early centuries of Christian era has been an affluent period in glass technology in India. During this period glass became more popular. On the one hand there was import of Roman glass objects as a part of Mediterranean trade with India and on the other hand local glass industry imbibed new techniques of the west.

v1.c16.s2.2

Glass flasks from Taxila from Saka Parthian levels look to be of Mediterranean origin. Glass objects from Arikamedu near Pondicherry also show that (Fig 4&5). Roman glass objects were imported. These include glass bowl and mosaic tablet of millifiore glass having floral device in the centre.

v1.c16.s2.3

Evidence of progress in local glass industry is available in the form of large glass tiles 10.25" square and about 0.2" thick. These are in various colours and were used for laying the *pradakṣiṇāpath* of the monastery of the Dharmarajika stupa at Taxila.

v1.c16.s2.4

Fig.4. Coloured Glass beads from Arikamedu, old French Exacavations, (Courtesy : Pondicherry Museum)

v1.c16.s2.5

Gold foil beads represent another advance of this period. Glass industry at Kopia (Dist. Basti) belongs to this period. From here a block of 120 lbs of unworked glass was recovered. In Deccan also the glass industry made head way during Satavahana period (Fig.6). This is attested by the nature of glass objects i.e. Nevasa (Dist. Ahmadnagar in Maharashtra) has yielded 12 rims of glass containers in emerald green, Persian blue and yellow colour. Ter (Dist. Osmanabad in Maharashtra), has yeilded two flasks, one coloured blue and the other coloured to imitate agate. These have been made by the core process. Devnimori in Gujrat and Amreli in Kathiawar have yielded fragments of glass bottles and loop handles of a bowl. Paithan (Maharashtra) has yielded rim fragments of a glass container in cobalt blue colour. Important articles and publications on various aspects have been mentioned in the bibliography in the end.

Manufacture

v1.c16.s3.1

Ingredients for glass in early days were river sand, crude natron or plant ashes and some colouring matter. Calcium carbonate was not added separately but particular sands were selected which contained lime. Such river sands are common in India.

v1.c16.s3.2

Production of Glass involved two stages. In the first stage sand and crude natron were heated at a temperature of 750°C when they were converted into frit. In the second stage the frit was converted to glass by heating it in crucibles upto a temperature of around 1100°C, till glass had become homogenous and clear.

v1.c16.s3.3

When finished, the glass was either poured straight into the mould for casting seals and slabs or it was poured in bits at a time and rolled into thick rods which were drawn into canes or strips.

v1.c16.s3.4

Table 1 — Colouring Agents used

v1.c16.s3.5

Characteristic Features of Ancient Indian Glasses

v1.c16.s4.1

1. Ancient Indian glasses from the very beginning show very good state of preservation and have not devitrified. It may be concluded that their chemical composition was quite compatible for producing good quality of glass. (Lal 1952)

v1.c16.s4.2

2. There was practice of annealing of glass objects.

v1.c16.s4.3

3. Many glass objects are translucent rather than transparent. This indicates their technological limitation. Either the melt was not completely molten and some of the batch materials remained unfused. That higher temperature required for plaining was not attained.

v1.c16.s4.4

4. Ancient Indian glasses have relatively high alumina, higher than 3.5. - 4% and low lime content rarely exceeding 5% and low magnesia.

v1.c16.s4.5

5. Early Indian glasses whether from P.G.W. Levels or N.B.P. phase are soda - lime - silica glasses.

v1.c16.s4.6

6. All glasses contain iron oxide. Probably it was present in the batch materials as an impurity.

v1.c16.s4.7

7. Lead, antimony, barium, tin and phosphorus are not present in early indigenous glasses.

v1.c16.s4.11

Fig.5. (1) Detailed view of glass seal from Maheshwar (c. 300 B.C.). (2) Glass Flasks from Sirkap (Taxila): Śaka-Persian levels (c. First century A.D.). (3) Glass Bowls from Arikamedu of Roman origin (First century A.D.)

v1.c16.s4.12

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

v1.c16.s4.13

Fig. 6. Glass Objects from Śātavāhana sites in the Deccan (1:1) Cross Sectional View (reproduced from H.G.Dikshit, 1969). (1 to 23): Cross Sectional View of Glass objects from Satvahanas. Details of Glass objects (cross-sections); 1 and 2 Ear-red from Ter 3. Bangle from Ter 4. Fragment of bottle from Pai. 5. Rim of Glass vessel from Nevasa. 6 and 7 Rim and solid base of Glass from Ter 8. and 9. Large Perfect cylinder hexagonal glass beads from Sopara. 10. Fragmentary ear-ring from Ter. 11. Head of perforated Kohl-stick from Nevasa. 12. Ring from Nevasa. 13 and 14 spirally wound glass bangles and rim from Ter. 15. Blue glass amulet imitating Tri-ratna from Ter. 16. 18-24. Various shapes of Glass beads from Satvahana site from Deccan including Ter, Nasik, Paithan, Nevasa, Prakash, Sopara etc. 17. Glass ear ornament

v1.c16.s4.14

Table 2 — Percentage Composition of Some Ceramic Materials and Glasses from Indian Archaeological Sites

v1.c16.s4.15

| Sl. No. | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Iron Oxide | Cr2O3 | MnO | Copper Oxide | CaO | MgO | Alkalies | SnO2 | Sb2O3 | PbO | P2O5 | Total |
| | | | FeO | Fe2O3 | | | Cu2O | CuO | | | Na2O | K2O | | | | | |
| 1. | 84.66 | 6.31 | - | - | - | - | 0.97 | 1.40 | - | 5.48 | - | - | - | - | - | 100.00 |
| 2. | 91.07 | 2.44 | - | - | - | - | 1.98 | tr | 1.28 | - | 2.08 | - | - | - | - | 98.85 |
| 3. | 54.28 | 19.63 | 8.70 | - | - | 0.13 | - | - | 9.63 | 4.39 | 3.43 | - | - | - | - | 100.19 |
| 4. | 56.96 | 3.62 | - | 4.46 | 1.09 | - | - | - | 7.00 | 3.75 | 17.55 | 4.09 | 0.89 | - | 1.06 | 100.47 |
| 5. | 65.01 | 2.28 | - | 9.67 | - | - | 5.27 | - | 4.08 | 0.49 | 13.05 | - | - | - | - | 100.00 |
| 6. | 39.79 | - | 2.45 | - | - | - | 5.31 | - | 2.81 | - | 10.02 | 0.57 | 0.22 | - | 38.93 | 100.10 |
| 7. | 61.32 | - | 1.70 | - | - | 0.26 | - | - | 9.74 | 1.64 | 20.26 | - | - | - | - | 100.00 |
| 8. | 58.12 | 5.74 | - | 1.74 | - | 0.17 | - | - | 8.85 | 4.01 | 16.74 | 4.83 | - | 5.08 | - | 100.20 |
| 9. | 59.56 | 0.05 | - | 5.40 | - | 0.06 | - | 1.82 | 6.54 | 4.34 | 14.19 | 2.41 | - | - | - | 99.96 |
| 10. | 73.62 | 1.38 | - | 3.84 | - | 5.01 | - | - | 1.96 | 0.30 | 1.30 | 12.78 | - | - | - | 100.26 |
| 11. | 61.76 | 14.77 | 0.82 | 5.07 | - | 0.04 | - | - | 2.29 | 2.13 | 9.73 | 4.12 | - | - | 0.07 | 1.36 | 100.73 |

Descriptions Of The Samples

v1.c16.s5.1

1. Carnelian Blue Slab, Mohenjodaro (2300 B.C.)
2. Dark red Faience, Mohenjodaro 2300 B.C.
3. Black Bangle, Mohenjodaro.
4. Glass piece, P.G.W., Dark Green, Atranjikhera
5. Opaque Red Glass Bead, Rajghat, N.B.P., 600 B.C.
6. Haematinum Strip, Taxila, C. 300 B.C.
7. White opaque Glass, Taxila, C. 300 B.C.
8. Amethyst Glass fragment Taxila C. 300 B.C.
9. Green Glass, 100 A.D. From Ahicchatra. 10 Deep violet Glass from Arikamedu. 11 Glaze, Kusana period Khokrakot

Colouring Agents

v1.c16.s6.1

(i) From the Harappan period onwards copper (both in cupric and cuprous form) has been used to obtain various shades of blue, green and opaque red in conjunction with iron.

v1.c16.s6.2

(ii) Use of manganese is restricted and has been reported from glasses from Kausambi (1. 42%) and Taxila glasses have upto 0.34%. Glasses of violet colour do not seem to be of indigenous origin. Such glasses as reported from Arikamedu and Ter look to be of Roman origin. Use of 0.10% MnO in glasses containing 2.5% Fe2O3 is reported for making colourless glass at Kopia.

v1.c16.s6.3

(iii) Use of Cobalt : Its earliest use in India is attested in glass beads from Rajghat datable to early centuries of Christian era (1st-3rd century A.D.) and subsequently cobalt is also reported from glasses from Mason. The percentage reported varies from 0.01 to 1.90%.

v1.c16.s6.4

(iv) Colour mechanism of copper-red glasses of Indian origin : Indigenous Cu-red glasses are free from lead and have been coloured red with substantial addition of copper and iron oxides (Bhardwaj 1970).

v1.c16.s6.5

(a) The indigenous copper - red glasses reported from Rajghat, Kausambi, Nalanda, Ahicchatra etc. show complete absence of lead in contrast to Assyrian red glasses which have high content of lead (about 22%).

v1.c16.s6.6

(b) another peculiar feature of Indian copper-red glasses is high content of iron oxide (9.67% in Rajghat, 9.82+7.01 in Nalanda and 9.16 in Assam glasses).

v1.c16.s6.7

(c) Most of the Indian copper-red glasses have very high percentage of cuprous oxide e.g.: 5.27% in Rajghat, 9.13% in Assam and 10.89% in Kausambi.

v1.c16.s6.8

(d) In contrast, glasses in other parts of the Old World have in general low content of iron oxide which is generally limited from 0.75 to 3.26%.

v1.c16.s6.9

(e) However, cuprous oxide in very early copper-red glasses e.g.. XVIIIth dynasty Egyptian 1400 B.C., Tel-el-Amarna, and 8th-7th century B.C. Assyrian glass from Nirmud have 13% cuprous oxide.

v1.c16.s6.10

Foreign Elements in Indian Glasses

v1.c16.s6.11

By and large, glass industry in ancient India has been indigenous and limited to making glass beads and bangles. This limitation has been due to short supply of alkalies.

v1.c16.s6.12

Beads look to have been exchanged or brought from one country to another and in this light we find quite a number of glass beads which look to be of foreign origin. In this connection mention may be made of:

v1.c16.s6.13

1. Taxila (now in Pakistan) was once a province of Achaemanian empire, conquered by Cyrus and it is very likely that quite a few glass objects found from Taxila excavations are of foreign origin. Presence of substantial amount of lead in some of these glasses is a pointer in this direction. Use of antimony and tin also confirm this (Bhardwaj 1979).

v1.c16.s6.14

2. Potash glasses with high content of silica have been reported from Ter, Kausambi, Arikamedu etc and these also look to be of foreign origin - probably Roman.

v1.c16.s6.15

3. Tripuri has yielded 3 glass beads (datable to circa 200 B.C.- 200 A.D.) the chemical composition of these beads shows the occurrence of barium in conjunction with lead. This is a diagnostic combination of Chinese glasses of the Han Period. This strongly suggests that these beads are of Chinese origin and attest to Indian and Chinese contacts around 200 B.C.-200 A.D. (Bhardwaj 1984).

v1.c16.s6.16

Dating value of Glass

v1.c16.s6.17

The question is whether it is possible to pin point any characteristic features so as to date the glass finds of archaeological origin. The answer is that there is some potentiality: provided glass beads from various horizons of archaeological excavations are analysed and diagnostic features underlined. At present state of our knowledge, a the following features can help in dating:

v1.c16.s6.18

(i) Iron is the only colouring agent in P.G.W. levels. Chromium has been recently reported from the same levels but this is a solitary evidence.

v1.c16.s6.19

(ii) Copper (both Cu+ and Cu++) is the main colouring agent along with iron which is always present, mostly as an impurity of the raw materials.

v1.c16.s6.20

(iii) Use of manganese both as decolouriser and as a tinctorial agent starts in the beginning of Christian era.

v1.c16.s6.21

(iv) Use of cobalt is first noted from archaeological levels datable to 1st to 3rd century A.D.

v1.c16.s6.22

So on the basis of their presence or absence one may be able to date the archaeological levels.

v1.c16.s6.23

Methods of Fabrication

v1.c16.s6.24

A variety of Glass objects e.g. beads, bangles, seals, tiles, bowls and flasks have been reported from archaeological remains. Of these beads are the commonest.

v1.c16.s6.25

Fig.7. Simple-wound bead (from Dikshit, 1969). (Courtesy Dikshit, 'History of Glass'.)

v1.c16.s6.26

Beads are named differently on the basis of their fabrication and design e.g. wire wound, multiple wound, drawn out beads, cane glass beads, beads made on spoke or hand perforated beads, pressed beads, folded beads and decorative beads like eye beads, gold foil beads, flowered beads (millifiori beads) and composite beads etc.

v1.c16.s6.27

Fig.8. Multiple-wound bead (from Sen et al., reproduced from monograph on Glass, by Sen, INSA).

v1.c16.s6.28

Bead Making: The glass in molten condition was stirred with an iron bar and the mass of molten glass is gathered at its end. Another craftsman pulls out this gathered mass by fixing another iron bar to it. He pulls it quickly by running, resulting in the formation of long glass rods with average thickness of 15 mm. Glass tubes were also made similarly but the gathering was provided with an air cavity and tubes were drawn out from the gathering with a blow iron. To start with beads would have been made singly by hand by winding thin glass threads round a copper wire and breaking off the thread after each bead (Fig 7). Beads from glass tubes were made by drawing out the glass tube to the required diameter and then cutting it into beads.

v1.c16.s6.29

Having made the glass rods and canes and tubes of the requisite size the beads were made by winding the softened glass rod around wire, the thickness of which varied according to the desired perforation of the bead. Beads were made either by single or multiple winding and they were fire polished and were turned around the fire to give the desired shape (Fig 8).

v1.c16.s6.30

On cooling the beads were taken off from the wire without any difficulty due to greater contraction in the thickness of the wire. Multiple cane beads were fabricated by pulling out bundle of glass canes together and giving them desired shape (Fig 9). Uniform surface was obtained by heat treatment. Beads were also made on spoke or were obtained by perforating semi-molten dropping of glass. Special beads like eye bead were made by highly skilled worker by spreading layers of different glasses on a matrix resembling the shape of eye. There is a design of eye surrounded by white matrix. Gold foil beads were made by sandwiching a gold foil in between two semi molten halves of the glass bead. Composite beads were made by adding an intermediate layer of white glass in between coloured glasses and then moulding them by twisting.

v1.c16.s6.31

Bangle Making: In the simplest method the craftsman dips the aṅkuri (iron hook) into the molten glass and takes out each time a small ball of glass sufficient for a single bangle. This ball is wound up on the end of an iron spit giving it the form of a thick ring which is squeezed with the help of a dagger shaped tool known as a mallahe - till it is cool. The ring is detached with the help of iron wire (bandhana) and is transferred to tapering clay cone (kalbut) which is processed in the furnace and spun rapidly and the glass ring is moved on to enlarge to the required size and is then slipped off and cooled.

v1.c16.s6.32

Fig.9. Drawn beads (from Sen et al., reproduced from monograph on Glass, by Sen, INSA).

v1.c16.s6.33

*Making of Hollow Wares by Core Techniques*: Hollow wares as evidenced from Devnimori, Amreli, Ter etc look to have been made by core technique. A stick or a rod with conical end was coated with a ball of sand held together by cloth bag. This was either dipped into molten glass and immediately taken out or thin canes of glass in semi-molten condition were wound around the core and fire polished. In both the cases, the core was removed on cooling and hollow ware was produced.

v1.c16.s6.34

*Moulding of Glass Objects*: As in the case of metal casting some glass objects were also prepared by casting in clay, sand stone or siliceous moulds. The molten glass was poured into the mould. Glass tiles, seals, and some bangles were made by casting them in moulds.

v1.c16.s6.35

*Glass Blowing Process*: Though glass blown objects like glass flasks from Taxila are reported but these look to be imports. Blown glass objects seem to have originated around first century B.C. in Rome. Blowing was done either in a mould or free blowing. In mould blowing, gathering of required size was taken on the blow iron and blown a bit and introduced into the bivalve mould and then blown to fill the mould. In case of free blowing a bulb of glass was blown and shaped by marvering or with the help of a handled board (*Fig 10*).

Early Centres of Glass Manufacture in India

v1.c16.s7.1

On the basis of the recovery of glass lumps, slags and crucibles used for glass manufacture, Kopia and Ahicchatra in U.P., Nevasa in Deccan and Arikamedu in the South look to have been centers of glass manufacture in antiquity (Roy and Varshney 1953).

v1.c16.s7.2

Fig. 10. Evidence for the tube-drawing process: Opaque red glass, tubes and knots. From Casal's excavations in Arikamedu (Courtesy, Pondicherry Museum). (Reproduced from monograph on Glass, by Sen, INSA)

Tools used in fabrication of Glass objects

v1.c16.s8.1

Unfortunately there is very little information on early glass making tools Archaeologists have not been able to lay their hands on glass making tools. However Dobbs (1895) and Halifax (1892) have reported on the pre-industrial glass making tools used by the craftsmen in India. Some of these tools are illustrated in Fig. 11. The tools include various rudimentary types e.g. stirrer, pontil, clay cones. blow pipes, iron shears, tongs, trowel and marver, as follows.

v1.c16.s8.2

I. Rods of different shapes & sizes

v1.c16.s8.3

(a) *Śikha*: A long iron rod meant for stirring the molten and semi-molten glass.

v1.c16.s8.4

(b) *Tokklā*: An iron rod with thick butt and tapering point.

v1.c16.s8.5

v1.c16.s8.6

(e) *Citarṇa*: An Iron rod used for providing zig-zag shape to bangles by twisting the molten glass.

v1.c16.s8.7

(f) *Saragañjana*: A long tapering rod of iron fitted with a wooden handle and it is used for separating bangles in semi- molten state from the clay cone. A smaller and thinner variety of *Saragañjana* was known as *Bandhana*.

v1.c16.s8.8

II. *Kalcul, Karculi*: This is an iron ladle used for dishing out molten glass.

v1.c16.s8.9

v1.c16.s8.10

v1.c16.s8.11

v1.c16.s8.12

v1.c16.s8.13

v1.c16.s8.14

v1.c16.s8.15

v1.c16.s8.16

v1.c16.s8.17

v1.c16.s8.18

v1.c16.s8.19

v1.c16.s8.20

v1.c16.s8.21

v1.c16.s8.22

Fig. 11. Glass Making Tools used by Traditional Glass craftsmen. 1. Sargañjana 2. Sarañga 3. Bardhana 4. Kalcul 5. Aṅkari 6. Patha 7. Kalbut 8. Nat 9. Aṅkari 10. Sarendi 11.and 12. Massa 13. Mallah (Courtesy: H.G.Dikshit, 'History of Glass')

v1.c16.s8.23

III. *Ankari*: A long iron rod (about 2 feet in length) hooked at one end and fitted with a wooden handle at the other. It was used for stirring of molten glass and dishing it out.

v1.c16.s8.24

IV. *Patha, Thapi, Mallah*: It is a dagger or trowel shaped tool, used for pressing and moulding glass in molten state.

v1.c16.s8.25

V. *Kalbut*: This is a clay cone, fixed to a wooden handle, It is used for enlarging glass bangles to requisite size.

v1.c16.s8.26

VI. *Nal, Phuṅkni*: It is a blow pipe, about 2 feet in length used for blowing glass.

v1.c16.s8.27

VII. *Massa*: Iron shears, these were used for shaping objects and separating glass from the blow pipe.

v1.c16.s8.28

VIII. *Cimṭā*: Flat iron tongs used for handling broken chips of glass in the furnace.

v1.c16.s8.29

IX. *Sīl*: A slab of stone corresponding to marver. It was used for rolling ends of glass on the blow pipe.

Linked texts (25)

Naturalis historia — C. Plinius Secundus, Latin
Mohenjo-daro
Alamgirpur
Ahicchatra
Kauśāmbī
Atranjikhera
Śrāvastī
Pāṭaliputra
Nālandā
Chandraketugarh
Sisupalgarh
Nevasa
Nāsik
Maski
Maheswar
Prakash
Kumrahar
Devnimori
Khokra-kot
Dharmarajika Stupa
Sirkap
Bulandibagh
Mason
Patha
Amravati