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History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c23.s2: Fibre

History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c23.s2

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Contents

Fibre

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Fibres used in India can be accommodated within the categories of bast, wool, silk and cotton. Animal skin and bark cloth², are, therefore, being excluded. Felt, *nāmdā*³, being non woven, may be classified as a fabric rather than a textile, and has been eliminated from the purview of this survey.

Bast Fibres

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The term bast fibre covers the category of strong ligneous fibres of which the most important are flax, hemp, jute and ramie, separated by the process of retting from certain parts of plant tissue. For the proper utilisation of such fibres the precise point at which further decomposition has to be arrested has to be accurately guaged. Fibres may be either woven into clothing or be diverted to the manufacture of cordage and meeting.

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Linen, referred to as *Kṣaumā* in early texts, is obtained from the plant *Linum usitatissimum*. The plant is called *Umā* in the *Caraka Saṃhitā* while Pāṇini uses the term *Kṣumā* and *atasi*. *Uma* and *Kṣumā* had the connotation of linen while *atasi* had that of linseed oil (Singh, M.N. pp.11-12). *Linum usitatissimum* was not indigenous to India and in antiquity it was cultivated in Egypt, Europe and Northern India. The attempt to popularise that plant for its flax fibre failed in this country, but as a source of linseed oil it was extensively cultivated (Singh, M.N. p.1)⁴. Flax fibres are long, lustrous, strong, and can stand up to high tension. They are smooth, hard faced, inelastic and resistant to abrasion. They are good heat conductors and readily absorb water.

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On the loom, warp ends can be set closely together as they are marginally affected by rubbing of adjacent warps when there is a change in shed. Individual fibres of good quality flax can be so delicate as to be close to being invisible, and very fine gossamer thin fabrics can be woven from such fibre. When flax is grown for fibre the seeds are sewn close together so that the stems grow straight and there are a minimum number of branches (Baines, p.3; Carrol, p. 15).

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The earliest references to *Kṣaumā* in the sense of linen garments occur in the *Maitrāyaṇīsaṃhitā* (3.6.7), and the *Taittirīyasaṃhitā* (6.1.1-3)⁵. Domestic production could not have been sufficient at all times to meet the demand and supplies must have been drawn from other sectors. Circa B.C. 600, the Phoenicians were distributing Egyptian linen in the Mediterranean region (Broudy, p.47). Since there is indication of the Phoenician network penetrating into Babylonia it would not be unreasonable to surmise that Egyptian linen was vended in India through a distribution system linking Western India to Babylonia through the Persian seaways. When the Roman market impinged on the Erythraean Sea, Egyptian linen was exported to India through intermediaries in Roman trade in payment for spices (Frank, p. 282)⁶. The predominant demand appears to have been for fine quality linen and in the *Amarakośa*, *Kṣaumā* is regarded as synonymous with *dukulā*. In course of time it was identified with the silk and between the 12th and 16th centuries A.D. its original meaning began to be forgotten (Sandesara and Mehta, p.28; Sarkar, p.60: Ray, p.195).

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Hemp receives mention in the *Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa* (Ray, p.197)⁷. The fibre, which is inelastic and crushes easily, is derived for purposes of weaving from the bark of *Cannabis sativa*, *Crotalaria juncea* and *Hibiscus cannabinus*. The oldest hempen fragment from *Cannabis sativa*, dated to circa B.C.800, has been found at Gordion in Asia Minor (Geijer, p.8). In India, however, *Cannabis sativa*, characterised as true hemp, has been cultivated predominantly for the narcotic extract obtained from its leaves and flowers. Known as *bhāṅga*, *vijaya* in Sanskrit, *gañjā* in Hindi, Bengali and Persian, it is indigenous to all parts of India. As a source of fibre, it has been utilised only in Nepal (Roxburgh, pp. 545, 718). The most popular source for hemp in India has been the bark of *Crotalaria juncea*, Sanskrit *śana*, Bengali *son*,. It is an annual plant cultivated in all parts of South Asia. The fibre in Bengal is whiter than that of Maharashtra because of the more rigorous processes of cleaning adopted. The history of *śana* pre-dates that of jute in India. The term gunny, carrying the connotation of jute in modern times, was derived from the term goṇi, a coarse cloth originally made from śaṇa (Roxburgh, p. 545; Watt, II, p.545).

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In the case of Hibiscus cannaibinus, mesta pāṭ in Bengal, ambaree or ambadi in Maharashtra Palungoo in Madras, the bark has been utilised for its fibre, while the leaves have served as a comestible. An alternative term adopted in Bombay for ambaree was Deccani hemp to distinguish it from Crotalaria juncea, or Koṅkani hemp. In the hilly areas of the region known earlier as the Circars in present day Andhra Pradesh, this plant was called Hibiscus collinus, the vernacular term being kanda gang (Roxburgh, p.528; Royle, pp.253-55, 261)8. It is called Hibiscus eriocarpus in present times. In central India, Verrier Elwin records that the Bondas, Gadabas and Parengas spin fibre from the bark of Calotropis gigantea. This is arka in Sanskrit, ak in Hindi and akado in Gujarati. This is mixed with cotton and woven on simple looms. Both fibres can be dyed. This cloth is called Keranga cloth (Elwin, pp.27, 33,35)9 (Figs. 1 & 2a-2d).

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Jute fibre is obtained from Corchorus olitorius and Corchorus capsularis. The plants are native to various parts of India and have been exploited in the pre-industrial period. Corchorus olitorius is called puṭṭā in Sanskrit and Pāṭ in Bengali (Roxburgh, pp. 428-29)10. The reddish variety was called bun (wild) pāṭ in Bengal. Woven material was called tāṭ. The term for coarser cloths used for making bags was choṭi, while saris were referred to as megila (Roxburgh, p.429; Watt,II,p.545; Royle, pp. 241-42)11. The fibre from the bark of Corchorus capsularis, called ghi-nalita pat in Bengal, was diverted to the manufacture of gunny bags and cordage (Royle, p.242; Watt, II, p. 545; Roxburgh,p.429)12. Other terms that are used for this fibre include narchā and nalitā. Thomas Wardle makes a reference which may have a bearing on earlier usages. Bark of the twigs of a small bush widespread both in its cultivated and wild form in the hotter areas of India, called Ulatkambal in Bengali, Abroma augusta, Linn. Sterculiaceae, yielded a lustrous, and soft fibre, akin to hemp and jute but distinct from both. It was much valued as it could be used as a substitute for silk (Wardle, p.119; Watt, I, p.8, Abroma augusta Linn q.v).

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Fig. 1. Keranga cloth woven by Bonda women, District Korapat, Orissa. This is a sample of a female hip cloth. Men wear similar pieces as loin cloth

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Fig.2a. Loom used in weaving Keranga cloth

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Fig.2b. Weaving process in Kerāṅga cloth. Note heddle stick, absence of need, yarn wound around a stick which serves as shuttle and the continuous warp

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The technology for the separation of jute fibre was simple. When the crop was ripe, it was cut down close to the roots. Separate bundles of the stems were made and these were left to steep in the water of some adjoining ditch. The bundles were weighted down with mud. The process of decomposition was carefully watched, the bark being tested from time to time by scratching the surface with the fingernail. At the next stage the separated fibres would be vigorously beaten for cleaning (Royle, pp. 242, 248-49).

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Fig.2c. Fibre from Calotropis gigantea, Kerānga. Photographs 2a-2c, Courtesy, Orissa State Museum, Bhubaneshwar

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The last major group among bast fibres has been associated with the plant Boehmeria nivea, commonly referred to as ramie or China grass. Regional variations in nomenclature were schou-ma in Chinese Poah in Nepal, rhea in Assamese (Balfour, II, p.403; VII, p.403)¹³, karikhura in Bengali and ramie in Malay. Forbes Royle notes that circa, 1855 rhea was not a commercial crop in Assam. It was grown around their homes by Dooms, members of the fisherman caste, and used by them for their needs (Royle, p.345). The preparation of fibre was a tedious process. Despite the silkiness of individual filaments, the inherent stiffness of the fibre made it difficult to twist, making its spinning an arduous process (Watt, I,p. 474).

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In Darjeeling, Dehra Dun and other places in North India, a related plant, Boehmeria puya Royle, was grown, puya fabric being woven from this fibre. The fibres derived from Boehmeria salicifolia and Boehmeria utilis were used for making rope (Balfour, II,p.403). These references to ramie as identified above, make it clear that the woven material could not have been of very high quality.

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However, in the Rāmāyaṇa, ramie or nettle cloth receives high praise for its fineness and beauty. Samples of ramie in Japanese collections are also of a high quality. The above reference may be taken to imply *Urtica heterophylla*, the *Horoo surat* of Assam, the Nilgiri nettle of South India and *herpah* of Bhutan. This plant, the bark of which yields an abundance of fine, white glossy silk-like fibres, grows in Burma, Assam, the Himalayan foothills up to Dehra Dun, Southern Konkan, Karnataka and coastal Kerala. The nettle cloth mentioned in the *Rāmāyaṇa* may have been derived from the fibre of this plant (Watt. I, p. 472; Royle, pp.366-367). Varrier Elwin noted that among the tribal groups of the North-East, the Monpas, Sherdukpens and Idu Mishmi wove fibres derived from *Boehmeria nivea* and other of nettle origin into a cloth which was made into jackets. These were so strong and stiff that they could serve as a kind of armour (Elwin, pp. 68-69, 131).

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In his seventeenth century diary, Streynsham Master refers to a textile called *herba*, while an eighteenth century French commercial dictionary mentions a bast fibre called simply *ecorce d'arbre* (bark of tree), said to stand midway between silk and hemp in its attributes. It was mixed with silk to weave the cloth variety called gingham. In view of the affinity between Rhea and fibres such as wool and silk pointed out by G.Watt, this fibre noted by the Europeans may be taken as a variant of *Boehmeria nivea*¹⁴. It could equally well be associated with *Ulatkambal*, mentioned by Thomas Wardle.

Wool

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Woollen fabrics have a tradition as old as that of bast fibres in India. Panini refers to the category of woollen garments as *aurna/aurnak*¹⁵. By the opening years of the Christian era not only was sheep's wool differentiated from that of the goat but even in the latter category, a line was drawn between the fibres derived from the domesticated variety and its wild counterpart (Varadarajan, 1984). The properties of wool had a bearing on its usage as a fibre. Wool is elastic and its fibres have a rough surface. This is caused by an external layer of microscopic overlapping scales. Wool can absorb 30% of its own weight as moisture, and when wet it generates heat. It can be stretched 30% beyond its normal dimension and still spring back to its original configuration when released. It is wrinkle resistant and has high powers of insulation. It is for this reason that desert dwellers wear wool to keep the heat out (Brown, p.213). These properties explain why wool was accorded a high ritual status in early texts.

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Unlike flax, wool requires little preparation for spinning. It can be spun directly after carding. However, for high quality items like *Kāni Paśminā* it was scoured and graded prior to carding and spinning operations¹⁶. Since wool possessed a natural fatty material washing was essential prior to dyeing. When placed on the loom warp ends had to be spaced to prevent or minimise the tendency to catch, cling or lock together on contact. However, once positioned safely wool keeps in place and this has favoured its usage in tapestry weaving.

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It is therefore, not surprising to note the double interlock a variant within the tapestry reportoire, developing in relation to *Kāni Paśminā* in Kashmir¹⁷.

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Owing to geographical and environmental factors, wool, over the major portion of India, is of inferior quality. Apart from Kashmir, Kutch and Saurashtra in Gujarat, and centres in Western Rajasthan, have developed items of variegated design in polychrome hues using rough quality sheeps' wool. In areas of low to deficient rainfall in Northern India, the camel is an important domesticated animal, but the hair of the Indian one-humped dromedary, unlike that of the Bactrian two-humped animal, is not altogether suitable for weaving. The Meghwal Community in Rajasthan weave a floor covering in which the warp is hand spun goat hair, and the weft, camel hair (Figs. 3a-3c).

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Fig.3a. Loom of Meghwal community. Continuous goat hair warp, no reed. Two weavers sit on either side of the loom. There is no pit. The weft yarn is wrapped around a stick about 2 1/2' in length. This is slipped through each shed as it is formed. The single shaft consists of a series of heddles passing through every alternate end. This is mounted on a heddle rod balanced on two sets of longitudinal poles. The upper rod slides alongwith its stand as weaving progresses. The weavers also move forward as weaving advances

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Fig.3b. Shed formation. In order to create a shed the suspended heddle shaft is slightly lifted. A flat stick is inserted in the small shed formed. This stick is then turned on its side to get a wider opening. The counter shed is formed by taking out the flat stick and bringing the shed rod closer to the heddle shaft. Although there is a continuous warp, usually the full warp is stretched out horizontally

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Fig. 3c. After completion of each pick the weave is beaten in by two pānja beaters. Figs. 3a,b,c were taken at a fair organized for Adivasis at Sanskar Kendra, Ahmedabad, February, 1992. The two weavers, Amba Ram and Sanook Kastura Ram, hail from Gam Megha Par, Post Rama, Jilla Jaisalmer

Silk

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The silk tradition in India is a very early one and by the time of the compilation of the *Arthasastra*¹⁸ there had emerged a clear sense of the distinction between Indian and Chinese silk, and, within India, there was an association between the colour and the quality of local bi- and multi-voltine cocoons of *Bombyx mori* (mulberry feeding moth), and that spun from the cocoon of the multi-voltine *Atticus ricini* (Eri). Wild silk is reeled from *Antherea mylitta* (Tasar), *Antherea assamensis* and *Saturnia assama* (Muga). Eri is also obtained from the cocoons of the moth *Philosamia cynthia* (Wardle, pp. 5-6, 55; Nanavaty, pp. 193-210)¹⁹. Bengal and Assam have been the traditional centres for mulberry silk. Muga and Eri are restricted to Assam, while Tasar has been produced in Bengal, Orissa, Bihar and Andhra Pradesh.

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Mulberry silk has a tradition of being woven even in areas ignorant of its cultivation, but the weaving of wild silk has tended to be more localised being generally restricted to the actual regions where the raw material was produced. (For further details see Varadarajan, 1986, pp.189-198; 1988, pp 561-570).

Cotton

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The cradle of cotton cultivation appears to have been the Northwestern part of South Asia. There seems to have been two species, *Gossypium arboreum* and *Gossypium, horbaceum*. Three samples of cotton, dated circa B.C. 1760 have been found in Mohenjodaro. Two items constitute the base fibre for string but there is also a small 34 count cotton woven fragment comprising 60 ends and 20 picks per inch. A portion of one of the strings tested showed that the cotton was of the *G. arboreum* variety. Both varieties existed in their perennial forms in areas with adequate water and warm temperature. The appearance of the annual variety of *G.herbaceum*, which could be diffused over a larger area is dated circa late 6th early 7th centuries A.D. and its earliest appearance is associated with the Turfan region of Sinkiang. It soon became the predominant species in India as well ²⁰. The highest achievement in the area of textiles in India are associated with manipulation of this fibre.

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