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History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c24.s2: Ploughing

History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c24.s2

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English

Ploughing

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Ploughing was regarded as an important process in cultivation. It is observed in the *Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa* (VIII.2.2.5) that furrow is like the womb in which seeds are sown and casting seeds into unploughed field is like sowing seeds into any place other than the womb.

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Prayers were offered for the ploughshare to plough the field properly and for the tillers to ply rightly (*Ibid*, VII.2.2.9). Mistakes in ploughing were corrected, as was done by a priest in reciting a hymn (*Ait.Br.*III.3.38). The *Milindapañho* (IV.6.47; II, p.79) notes that one of the four essential requirements for a successful crop is that the field should be well ploughed. The necessity of ploughing a field deeply was realised. Deep ploughing brings out clods of earth from the soil and increases the fertility of the field. There were distinct terms for fields cultivated twice or thrice (Pāṇini V. 4.59; *Amarakośa* II.9.9). Pāṇini (V.4.58; also Amara II.9.9) further provides for the formation of terms signifying ploughing done more than three times. The *Kṛṣi-Parāśara* (verses 142-43) recommends ploughing to be done five times. The first ploughing gives wealth, the third the desired object, and the fifth rich harvest. The term *śambākṛta* (Pāṇini V. 4.58) refers to a field cultivated twice from one end to another, and second time in a reverse direction. V.S. Agrawala (p.255) explains the term as referring to ploughing the furrow a *śama* or 14 *angulas* (=10¹/₂ inches) deep.¹¹

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The general practice was to plough a field before scattering seeds. But another parctice of long standing required the field to be ploughed after the seeds had been sown. There were special terms to refer to this practice (Pāṇini V. 4.58; Amara, II.9.8). It was fully realised that ploughing done at the right time yields an abundance of fruit (*Uttar. Ti.* I, p.10a).

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The *Kṛṣi-Parāśara* attaches great importance to ploughing. It raises the act to an auspicious rite, designated as *hala- prasāraṇa* (commencement of ploughing) which is necessary for the success of cultivation (verses 152-53). The advice concerns mostly the time and method of ploughing, but the details smack of superstition and do not seem to have much practical applicability although referrring to astronomical considerations.

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The *hala-prasāraṇa* is to be done in the Nakṣatras Svāti, Uttaraphālgunī, Uttarāṣāḍā, Uttarabhādrapada, Rohiṇī, Mṛgaśiras, Mūlā, Punarvasu, Puṣyā, Śravaṇā and Hastā, on Friday, Monday, Thursday, and Wednesday (but not on the remaining days) and on the second, third, fifth, seventh, tenth, eleventh and thirteenth lunar mansions (but not on the first, fourth, sixth, eighth, ninth, twelfth and fourteenth). For this the sun’s entrance (*lagna*) into Vṛṣa, Mīna, Kanyā, Yugma, Dhanuṣ and Vṛścika are auspicious, whereas inauspicious ones are Meṣa, Karkaṭa, Siṃha, Kumbha, Makara and Tulā (*Ibid.*, verses 121-24).

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The owner of the field is to take bath and put on a pair of white clothes at a time when the position of the sun and the moon is favourable, duly worship the earth, the planet, Pṛthu and Prajāpati with sandal and flowers, circumambulate fire keeping it on the right, make ample gifts, besmear with honey the tip of the ploughshare and perform halaprasāraṇa at the left side of the field. Vasava (Indra), Sukra, Pṛthu¹² and Parāśara are to be invoked and fire, a Brāhmaṇa and God are to be worshipped. The sides of the bulls yoked to the plough are to be besmeared with butter or ghee. Facing northward, one should give an offering of milk mixed with white flowers and curd to Indra and sitting on a seat with a concentrated mind and placing the knees on the ground should bow to him. One should give without fail an offering and lamp of ghee to Marutvān and utter an incantation to Vasudhā (Ibid., 139-40).

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The text points out that there should not be a broken furrow. The furrows should be one, three, or five in number. The text lists a number of inauspicious portents in the act of ploughing : the plough raising a tortoise, the forced raising of and a breach in the ploughshare, the plough, īśā, yuga or the śaula breaking, the yotra snapping, the cultivator or a cow falling down or a bull running away. Likewise, a cow bellowing and licking the nose and the bulls voiding dung and passing urine are considered to be auspicious.

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