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History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c29.s2.t5: Wood

History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c29.s2.t5

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English

Wood

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Wood and the vegetable world supplied the first building materials and wood was amongst the first constructional material for buildings. Post holes supporting wooden posts or bamboos have been identified from prehistoric settlements right from neolithic times. Sanskrit (*Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa*) and Pali literature (*Jātakas*) *Arthaśāstra* and *Rāmāyaṇa* show that buildings were generally made of wood. That wooden architecture prevailed in India for a long time is attested by the fact that when other material was used the buildings were made after their wooden models. The pillars, the arch, the door and the mouldings of the early caves all disclose their indebtedness to buildings made of wood. From the use of bamboos came the

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Table 1—Percentage Composition of Gypsum and Lime Plasters and Mortars from Harappa and Mohenjodaro

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| Chemical Constituents | Mortar from Mohenjodaro | Mortar from Mohenjodaro | Plaster from Mohenjodaro | Mortar/Plaster from Mohenjodaro | Mortar/Plaster from Mohenjodaro | Mortar from earthen ware Mohenjodaro | Mortar from drain & cesspool Mohenjodaro | Mortar from floor at Harappa (Floor) | Lump of Mortar from Harappa (Floor) | Mortar from Harappa (Floor) | Mortar from Concrete floor at Harappa |
| Ca SO4 2H2O (Gypsum) | 72.3 | 74.12 | 56.9 | 43.75 | 63.25 | 56.7 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Ca CO3 (Calcium carbonate) | - | 2.50 | 0.94 | 13.78 | 1.64 | 25.0 | 69.58 | 39.96 | 35.02 | 56.51 | 26.5 | 37.63 |
| Mg CO3 (Magnesium carbonate) | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 10.62 | 4.81 | 8.46 | 2.18 |
| Sand & Clay | - | 20.41 | 42.16 | 38.04 | 31.52 | - | 21.71 | 47.48 | 51.39 | 34.35 | 61.60 | 59.29 |
| Alkaline Salts | 27.7 | 1.18 | - | 2.47 | 2.56 | 18.3 | 5.44 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Moisture (Water) | - | 1.79 | - | 1.96 | 1.01 | - | 3.27 | 3.74 | 2.97 | 4.33 | 3.44 | 0.90 |
| Total | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 |

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Table 2 — Percentage Composition of Lime Plasters and Mortars from Kausambi (based on Satya Prakash and N.S.Rawat:1965) (Dt. Allahabad)

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| Sample No. | CaO | Insoluble sand, etc | MgO | CO2 + H2O | Moisture | P2O5 | SO2 | Fe2O3 + Al2O3 | Cl, Alkali | Total |
| 1 | 31.12 | 33.43 | 2.01 | 24.08 | 1.42 | 0.51 | 0.30 | 7.13 | - | 100.00 |
| 2 | 28.41 | 41.40 | 1.38 | 20.16 | 1.63 | 0.72 | 0.39 | 4.65 tr | - | 98.74 |
| 3 | 28.08 | 39.13 | 1.21 | 21.09 | 2.37 | 0.71 | 0.41 | 7.00 | 0.30 | 100.30 |
| 4 | 29.00 | 36.37 | 0.63 | 21.12 | 2.88 | 0.60 | 0.34 | 8.93 | - | + 99.87 |
| 5 | 25.06 | 44.49 | 0.92 | 18.29 | 3.44 | 0.68 | 0.29 | 6.60 | - | + 99.70 |
| 6 | 15.12 | 65.39 | 1.98 | 9.20 | 2.73 | 0.48 | 0.31 | 4.49 tr | - | 100.62 |
| 7 | 18.53 | 57.37 | 1.80 | 13.00 | 1.48 | 1.12 | 0.51 | 6.19 | 0.62 | 100.51 |
| 8 | 27.51 | 38.09 | 1.30 | 19.29 | 3.10 | 0.99 | 0.56 | 9.67 tr | - | |

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Table 3 — Ratio of sand and slaked lime based on Table-2 in Plasters and Mortars from Kausambi

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| Sample No | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
| Sand | 33.43 | 41.40 | 39.13 | 36.37 | 44.49 | 65.37 | 57.37 | 38.09 |
| Slaked lime Ca (OH)2 | 41.11 | 37.53 | 37.09 | 38.30 | 33.10 | 24.48 | 24.48 | 36.34 |
| Ratio of Sand and Ca (OH)2 | 3:4 | 1:1 | 1:1 | 1:1 | 4:3 | 3:1 | 2:1 | 1:1 |

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Table 4 – Percentage Composition of fine lime plaster Samples (1 to 4) and rough lime plaster (5 to 8) From Karwan (Dt. Vadodara, Gujarat)

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| Sample | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
| Ca CO3 | 94.12 | 94.28 | 94.46 | 94.26 | 69.98 | 74.26 | 71.88 | 68.34 |
| Sand | 5.88 | 5.72 | 5.54 | 5.74 | 30.02 | 25.74 | 28.12 | 31.66 |
| Total | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 |

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Table 5 – Percentage Composition of Bhitari (Dt. Ghazipur. U.P.) Plaster

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| Sample | Si O2 | Ca O | MgO | Fe2O3 | Al2O3 | Alkali | Total |
| 1 | 73.40 | 13.65 | 1.85 | 6.45 | 0.65 | 1.75 | 97.45 |
| 2 | 74.20 | 13.42 | 1.76 | 4.50 | 2.60 | 1.46 | 97.94 |

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Table 6 – Percentage Composition of Plaster samples from Nalanda

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| Sample No. | CaO | CO2 + H2O | Clay and Sand | MgO | Fe2O3 + Al2O3 | NaCl | H2O | SO3 | Total |
| 1 | 33.95 | 25.84 | 27.5 | 1.13 | 7.84 | - | 2.24 | 0.27 | 98.79 |
| 2 | 34.78 | 30.30 | 23.41 | 1.30 | 5.54 | 2.40 | 2.16 | 0.40 | 100.29 |

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Table 7 - Percentage of Plaster sample from Lingaraj temple Bhubaneshwar (Orissa) 10th century A.D.

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| CaO | CO2 + H2O | Clay + Sand | MgO | Fe2O3 | Cl | H2O | SO3 | Total | Lime Sand ratio |
| 37.30 | 33.31 | 19.26 | 3.12 | 5.62 | 0.23 | 0.68 | 0.78 | 100.30 | 3:1 |

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Table - 8 - Percentage Composition of Cola and Nayak Plasters

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| Description | Ca O | CO2 | SiO2 | Fe2O3 + Al2O3 | MgO | SO3 | Moisture | Alkalies | Total |
| Chola rough plaster | 27.88 | 18.05 | 49.97 | 1.89 | 0.51 | 0.26 | 0.38 | 1.05 | 99.99 |
| Chola fine plaster | 65.59 | 25.13 | 7.02 | 1.06 | 0.37 | 0.58 | 0.23 | - | 99.98 |
| Nayak rough plaster | 18.56 | 9.38 | 63.39 | 3.69 | 0.33 | 0.17 | 3.14 | 1.34 | 100.00 |
| Nayak fine plaster | 55.58 | 23.67 | 13.76 | 1.59 | 1.02 | 0.59 | 3.77 | - | 99.98 |

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curvilinear type of roof which was later reproduced in cut timber and subsequently in stone and from which were evolved the *caitya* arches.

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For protection of wood from white ant and other corrosive effects the wooden posts were set in jars of earthern ware. The *Ṛgveda* refers to the dwelling places but the characteristics of the buildings are not clear. From the reference to *Tvasta*, it is clear that master architect was a carpenter and wood was the main material used along with others. *Takṣaka* in later architecture means a mason whose duty was to give fine shape to the stone, wood or the brick (*Mayamatam*, ch. V. 20).

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Though stone architecture was followed by the Buddhists, the Hindus continued to build their houses, *Prāsādas* & *Devālayas* in bricks and wood. That is why no Hindu temple is known before Gupta period. The brick and wooden temples have perished for ever.

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The main structure of Mathura temple of Vāsudeva, the Heliodoros temple of Vāsudeva at Besnagar have not been preserved.

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Aryans lived in wooden and brick houses and being strict followers of *Vāstuvidyā* hesitated to depart from that tradition. Stone structures were made by non-Aryans.

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Wood has been used as constructional material from neolithic times. Post holes in early neolithic settlements confirm this. As wood is perishable material only a fragment of what was used has come to us. In Harappan period it was used in conjunction with bricks masonry, for door frames, door leaves and as wooden beams for roofing purposes. Use of timber has also been attested for making embankments or wooden walls.

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Variety of wood has been identified from archeological sites. Special mention may be made of Acacia (*babūl*), Adina cardifolia (*haldu*), Albizzia (*kokko*), Anogeissus (*baklī*), Casearia (*cilla*), Cedrus deodara (*deodār*) dalbergia spp. (*śiśam*), Dendrocalamus sp (Bamboo), Mangifera indica (Mango) Pinus roxburgii (*cira*), Shorea robusta (*sāl*) and Tectonia grandis (*teak*).

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Important sites from where wood samples have been identified are: Lothal (Harappan), Atranjikhera (O.C.P) Śiśupālgarh (early historic), Jagatgram (early historic ‘aśavamedha’ site), Patliputra (Patna) early historic period.

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Identified specimens from various sites are mentioned below in alphabetical order :

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1. Acacia Sp. (*babūl*): Lothal and Rangpur (Harappan) Maski and Prakāsh (Chalcolithic) and Śiśupālgarh (early historic).
2. Acacia nilotica (L) Del (*babūl*): Atrainjikhera (O.C.P)
3. Adina cardifolia (*haldu*): Lothal (Harappan)
4. Albizzia sp. (*kokko. sirisa*): Lothal
5. Angoissus sp.(*baklī*: From all levels of excavations of Prakash.
6. Bassia latifolia (Roxb).(*mahua*): From Kirari, yupa (early historic)
7. Boswellia serrata (Roxb) *salai*: From Śiśupālgarh (early historic).
8. Casearia Sp. (*cilla*): From Śiśupālgarh (early historic).

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9. Cedrus deodara (*deodār*): From Harappa, Mohenjo-daro Atranjikhera (N.B.P.W)
10. Cupressus torulosa (*devdiar*): From Atranjikhera (N.B.P.W.).
11. Dalbergia sp. (rosewood) *śiśam*: From Prakash (early historic).
12. Dalbergia latifolia (black *śiśam*): From Harappa, Prakash (chalcolithic).
13. Dalbergia Sissoo (Sissoo): (*śiśam*) From Monhenjo-daro, Atranjikhera (O.C.W.), Hastinapur (Late Historic).
14. Dandrocalamus Sp. (Male Bamboo): From Prakash (Chalcolithic, N.B.P.W.).
15. Diospyros sp. (Ebony): From Arikamedu (early historic).
16. Heritier Sp. (*sundari*): From Arikamedu (early historic).
17. Holarrhena antidysentrica (*kurchi, karci*): From Prakash (chalcolithic) Śiśupālgarh (early historic) Hastinapur (late historic).
18. Madhuca latifolia syn *mahua*: From Kirari, Yypa (early historic).
19. Mangifera indica (mango): From Jagatgram (early historic site of Aśvamedha)
20. Mimusops (*mūlsari*): Arikamedu (early historic).
21. Pinus roxburgii (*cīr*): Atranjikhera (P.G.W.) Pinus sp. (Pine): Harappa.
22. Shorea robusta (*sāl*): Atranjikhera O.C.P., Jagatgram (early Historic), Patliputra.
23. Soymida febrifuga (*Rohan*) From Lothal (Harappa), Śiśupalgarh (early historic).
24. Tamarix Sp. (*Jhāu*) From Rangpur, Atranjikhera N.B.P.
25. Tectona grandis (teak): From Lothal (Harappa) Prakash (Chalcolithic) Atranjikhera (Black and Red Ware).
26. Terminalia tomentosa: From Prakash (Chalcolithic) Atranjikhera, N.B.P., Jagatgram Aśvamedha site (early historic).
27. Zizyphus sp. (*ber*): Harappa.
28. Ulmus lancifolia (elm): Harappa.

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Wood is of perishable nature. However fragmentary evidence of timber is available:

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*Harappan* : Universal flat roofs with evidence of sockets indicate that square cut beams with spans of as much as 4 meter were used for roofing at most of the Harappan sites in India and Pakistan. Timber was also used for semi-structural frame or lacing for brick work.

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*Taxila*: Use of timber for the upper floors and roofs as well as for varandahs, doors and smaller fittings.

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*Bairat* (Dt. Jaipur): Octagonal columns of wood, 26 in number have been identified on the basis of charred stumps.

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*Śiśupālgarh*: The wood has been used for gates.

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*Large Scale use of timber at Paṭaliputra*

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The excavations at Kumrahar, Bulandibagh and Kankarbagh have exposed extensive remains of massive timber pallisade of ancient city of Patliputra, which is believed to have been founded a year before Buddha’s death and which became capital of Magadhan empire shortly thereafter. Magasthenes also mentions this wooden palli-sade. According to him the pallisade had numerous gates and watch towers surrounded by a deep moat.

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It might have been constructed in the time of Nandas who built first an all-India empire in historic period with Pataliputra as the capital, rather than by Candra Gupta Maurya as might be inferred from the statement of Magasthenes.

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Archaeological excavations in 1926-27 resulted in the discovery of east-west wooden structure running for a distance of about 137 meters. It is a wall made of heavy wooden sleepers placed vertically in a double row with similar sleepers joining them horizontally at the bottom. In 1935 a similar structure was found at Gosainkhanda 800 meter east of Bulandibagh but here the wooden structure had a reverse design viz. the vertical sleepers were capped by horizontal ones.

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Kumrahar excavations during 1951-55 have not brought to light any wooden boundary walls, or railings or wooden floor of the hall. The hall was probably destroyed by fire during Sunga period. Hall may not be a part of the palace of Aśoka as mentioned by Fa-Hien and was destroyed long before Fa-Hien’s visit to India.

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The temples of Brahmaur, Catrarhi, Manali and Camba (datable to 8-9th century) all in Himachal Pradesh, have carved wooden doorways, columns, beams, and ceilings, still surviving. There are temples wih wooden architecture in U.P. also, mention may be made of temples at Sarahan and Jageshwar. Cedar wood has been used in Himachal.

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Though India’s early wooden architecture has not survived, techniques derived from this tradition influenced later rock-cut and masonary monuments. Among the timber, bamboo and thatch elements that were preserved in later architecture are circular or part circular plans, curved doorways and window openings and domed and barrel-vaulted roof forms.

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The earlist rock-cut Buddhist and Jain sanctuaries had timber- like ceilings with cross-beams and rafters: actual teak ribs were even inserted into the stone vaults. Clearly, these artificial caves were intended as copies of timber structure. Stone posts and rails that surrounded stupas also imitated timber originals, even to the details of jointing, so too did the stone gateways with carved architraves known as ‘toran’. Masonary details of temples were often wooden in origin: projecting blocks on basements and cornices were derived from the ends of timber beams, doorways had jambs and lintels of timber designs. Towers with curved profiles and roofs with barrel-vaulted or dome-like tops were also wooden in origin as were the curved cornices but like roofs of brick temples in Bengal in eastern India, or the sloping stone roofs of temples in coastal southern India. Some completely wooden structures have survived the corrosive effects of India’s climate. In the Himalayan valleys and in Kerala, temples have carved timber doorways, columns and beams, angled wooden brackets etc.

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