History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c37: Leathercraft

History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c37

Language: English

v1.c37.s1 Processing of Skins and Their uses — 16 parts

Leathercraft

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From very early stage in the development of human race, utilization of animal skins for all kinds of essential purposes has continued without a break. In the earliest stages, the product crudely prepared from skin was not actually what we today know as leather currently employed. Chamoising with fats and oils, tanning with mineral salts and tanning with vegetable extracts were all established in prehistoric times. Evidence shows that it had reached a remarkable standard of perfection in the highly advanced cultural societies of Ur, Babylon, Egypt, Ancient India and China. As preparatory methods improved, so the scope of leather usage was widened until it embraced almost every sphere of human activity.

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Not only in versatility has leather excelled as servant to mankind, but in adaptability also. New properties have constantly been imparted to leathers and as old uses faded out, new ones have taken their place.

Processing of Skins and Their uses

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In many prehistoric sites all over India, flint scrapers have been discovered which were used to clean and prepare animal skins. Most probably the fleshing and the hair on the skin was removed and softened with fat and brain using flint scrapers.

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The curved shapes of skin scrapers found on paleolithic sites suggests that they must have been laid over tree trunk to make the task easier, similar work is being done over a wooden beam now in the village tanning.

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Evidences are there to indicate the animals and others whose skins were used during the ancient time in India, Asia, Europe and other places were oxen, calf, sheep, goat, lion, panther, gazelle, cheetah, antelope, leopard, camel, hippopotamus, dog, ibex, deer, cat, rabbit, hyena, wolf, bison, ass, pig, donkey, bear, jackal, seal, otter, horse, snake, lizard etc. The tanning materials used are Gall nuts, Acacia Arabica, pomegranate, oak, spruce, pine, sumac, amla, asan, myrab, alum, vinegar, etc. and also other materials like, the insect kermes, flour, fermented vegetable matter, wine, beer, milk, salt, curd, cow dung, fermented fleshing, urine etc were also used in the ancient tanning processes. The usual mechanical operations are handling, beating, beaming, pulling, staking, stretching on wooden frame for drying, polishing by stone etc.

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In the tanning process, the hides and skins are soaked in water, treated with lime and fermented liquor in pre-tanning processes, tanned using vegetable tanning materials, alum, oil and fats and coloured and sometimes polished. Vegetable oils and fats were used to make heavy and tough leathers. Light leathers were made with alum alone or in combination with vegetable and oiling and also by oil (Chamois) tanning. Parchments are prepared by scraping off the hair with some pretreatment or after sweating.

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These leathers were used in ancient times to make articles for defence purposes - mainly moulded or scaled - protective covering for head, body, leg and feet for the warrior and his mate, shield, scabbard, saddles, horse, trappings, war tents, boats, musical drums, dhundubi, writing parchment, containers to stock water, liquids and solids, drinking cups, and for civil uses as cap, head clothes, clothing, gloves, chappals, sandals, shoes, boots, boxes, containers, drinking cups, percussion musical instruments (eg. Dhundubi), writing parchment, shadow parchment puppets, parchment leaf for beating gold into thin film, sound box for musical instrument, mattress, cushion leather chairs, curtain, aprons, sweat bands, wall covering, balls for games, leather cases, dog collar, leases, whips, thongs, and twisted ropes of varying diameter and length, window panes, doors, thongs, tent, boat, leather buckets, water sal, bellows, etc.

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Examples of really ancient leather is very rare because it is a perishable commodity. Skin is preserved in the dry climate as in the tombs in Egypt and in saltish water as leather scrolls of the Dead Sea and in frozen places as that of the leather in the frozen wastes in Central Asia. Probably more actual articles of leather survived in these places than any where else but this is not to say that similar leather articles were not in use elsewhere particularly in India. Even most of the leather articles of recent past are to be considered more or less the replica of the ancient ones like the body armour, shield, scabbard, containers, garments, caps, boxes, chappals, sandals, shoes etc.

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The oldest leather was found by the Tunisian researcher E. Schiaparelli during excavations at the Upper Egyptian settlements, Ghebelen. At the same place he found a real tannery and the tanning material used in tanning - Acacia nilotica containing 31% tannin - a tannin species similar to the Bābul of (acacia arabica) of India. Acacia nilotica is available even today in Sudan, the neighbouring country of Egypt where the author of the article analysed the pod of the species and found to contain 41% of tannin - a very good tanning material - nothing to outbeat it even today (Fig. 1).

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The leather was produced in North India using bābul, alum and shellac to make Nari leather which was used to make leather garments shoes and balls. The use of pomegranate rind in tanning and dyeing is of ancient origin in Kashmir and it is found to be followed even today. Dhāva leaves, Āmlā leaves etc. similar to Sumac find a place for mild tanning and colouring in India.

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

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Fig. 1. Pre-historic leathercraft a) Ivory Statute from Buryat, Siberia, b) After paintings in Spanish Levant caves, c) Found near Hamburg, coutesy Stade museum, d) Leather board on loan to the Museum of Leather craft

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Indians used mainly bābul pods and bark in vegatable tanning especially in a bag form. Bag tanning is a technique wherein the hides and skins are stitched into a bag form and bark with infusion is kept inside the bag so that the tanning infusion will percolate through the thickness of the hides and skins rapidly and evenly effecting a very good vegetable tannage. Also made leather using alum and oil tannages alone and in combination with vegetable. Chrome tanning was not in use in ancient time since it is a recent origin (end of nineteenth century). Malaya, Japan, and India made parchment for making puppets for shadow shows and also India made parchment to use as a sheet for writing as well as musical instruments as in Persia, Babylon, Egypt, etc. Tartar knew how to make leather flasks in grotesque forms using ‘boiled leather’. Similar leather bottles were also made in India. Alum tanned soft leather was used to make the red leather gloves presented to an official depicted wearing these in tomb painting from Tel-el, Armrna in Egypt dated about 1370 B.C. Similar leather was also produced in India.

Early Indian Variety

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The Indus Valley people domesticated humped bull, sheep, camel, elephant, buffalo, goat, cow etc. The valley engravings on seals show what perfection had been attained in the breed of these magnificent creatures which were worshipped in India from time immemorial. They were fond of hunting as on certain Seal representation of men shooting a wild goat and large antelope with bows and arrows. The art of writing was known to them as found in Seals and may be on parchment, too. But the condition in the valley was so devastating that we cannot expect the relics of the leather craft to survive for us to witness.

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India being a tropical country, the use of leather was much less for footwear among the working class who were poor and illiterate and often barred from wearing by the Caste Hindus from later Vedic period. However, the demand for a variety of footwear from Kṣatriya and Vaiśya were quite high. The demand from the priestly community was meagre and their necessity was fulfilled by using cheap and simple leather as well as wooden sandals.

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Major amount of leather were utilized for defence and agricultural purposes. Most of the development in leathercraft might have taken place only through the invaders and the tradesmen and not much by the craftsmen themselves since they were illiterate.

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In the time of *Ṛgveda*, Indra was said to have produced rain by piercing *masak* (skin water bag). In the Laws of Manu, the peculiar form of *dṛti* (skin water bag) with the four feet left intact is pointed out. According to the law books of Sankhya that water was declared pure which was kept in older leather bottles. The use of such word as *carmanta*, *carmapath*, *vastra*, *casabandha*, etc. in older Sanskrit work indicates that straps, bands, and strings of leather were in common use and sails were also made of leather.

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The *Ṛgveda* often refers to the quiver and the gauntlet. Megasthenes mentions about the bridle. When it is said that an Indian by springing forward in front of a horse, can check his speed and hold him back, this is not true of all Indians but only of those trained from boyhood to manage horses for it is a practice with them to control their horses with bit and bridle, and to make them move at a measured pace and in straight course.

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Harness and chariot in which leather was used are also mentioned in the *Ṛgveda*. Here are some verses ‘The Pairaj, the kingdom of Kashirat rub down the high spirited steed, decorated with golden trappings’ ‘Harness with traces to thy car thy long manned ruddy steeds to the sacrifices’. ‘Ascend Aswins, your sky touching chariot with golden seat and golden reins. Golden is its supporting shaft, golden the axle, both golden the wheels’. Shoes, for example are mentioned in the code of Manu as a suitable gift for a Guru.

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The *Ṛgveda* refers to the many uses of leather including chariot, rein and whips, bow strings, wrist guards, slings etc. Chariots are described in detail with leather bodies mounted on a light wooden frame, the axles were attached by leather straps ‘As with the leather thong they bind the chariot yoke to hold it fast and crossing a river, so let your wave bear up the pins and ye oh water, spare the thongs...’. Examples of chariot such as these have been found in a number of places, including Egypt which was ruled by Persian pharaohs between the 6th and 4th century B.C. The floor of Tutankhamens’s chariot was made of interlaced leather thongs. Raw and tanned hides and skins were also used as tyres for chariot. This indicates the art of tanning and manufacturing of leather products are more inter-related among the ancient civilization.

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In the *Rāmāyaṇa*, the leather industry was one of the many other thriving industries of the day. The Ayodhyakāṇḍa tells us of the inhabitants who went out with Bharat seeking after Rama including ‘curriers’, musical instrument makers and armourers.

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In Manu and the *Mahābhārata*, the slippers are mentioned. The *Viṣṇu Purāṇa* recommends the use of shoes to protect the feet.

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The art of utilizing the hides and skins especially that of game animals to make stuffed life-like animals is known as taxi dermy. Sometimes head alone is preferred. Sometimes the skin without hair or fur on alone is processed. The human being wearing the full skin with head, like the one of the tiger, bear, guerilla etc to dramatise a scene in the drama, to attack enemies and scare people as well as to entertain them, might have been very common during the ancient time. The various humans in animal form depicted in mythological stories may be even human beings camouflaged with animal skin.

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In India, the place of life stock resources in the Agriculture economy is well known. In the early period of Indian civilization cattle were considered to be one of the main sources of wealth. A further illustration is found on this aspect in the *Arthaśāstra* which describes about cattle feeding and in the *Mahābhārata*, a mention has been made on the cattle census and pedigree register.

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*Carmār* (*cāmar*) tanned the ‘*carmax*’ (the covering of animals) and handed over to *cakkilīya* to stitch into shoes, *aṅgustra* (a protective cover for thumb of bow), *vastra* (garment), *kavasa* (shield), kuppies (bottles), *kavalai* to draw water sources for irrigation, etc. These are no doubt leather products of ancient India.

Leather Garments

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In ancient times the people used to offer to their gods, gurus, the things that they considered very essential and valuable. Under the same custom, people in India offered leather *vastra* to their gods, leather ‘*āsana*’ (seat), and sandals to gurus. Leather *pādukā* (wear for patham) to Lord Venkateswara in Thirupathi (A.P.), Lord Ranganatha in Srirangam, (Tamil Nadu), Lord Hanuman in Shimoga, (Karnataka) were offered from very ancient time by the devotees - the shoe makers.

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Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, Persians and others had tanneries and leather work with whom India had direct contact from ancient time and it was aware of this leather craft besides its own innovations.

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The climatic condition in South India is quite tropical, ancient Tamil literature indicates that the ancient Tamil were not wearing only leather clothes but also from leaves ‘Thazhi uddai.’ and that of bark ‘Mara uddai.’ They were also eating meat of goat, cow, elephant, deer etc. The covering of the animals, not eatable, were used to make leather and leather articles. Their gods were also attired with the skins of deer, tiger etc. These skins were also used to make seat to sit on or sleep comfortably with the effect of good air cushion. Recently it was noticed and used fur skin as bedsheet for patient with severe burns. The ancient Tamil used chest gear covered with tiger skin. They used protective covering known as ‘Kavasam’ made of moulded leather, elephant hide and layers of other hides pasted together to cover separately, head, chest, hand, finger, leg and foot.

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Leather garments *Nina Cattai* (leather shirt) were worn. Footwear was known as *Thol adi* (leather sandal). In a place known as Athiraipakkam, 50 Km from Madras, found on excavation, the stone tools of Neolithic man used for scraping or setting skins and making holes. There are fleeting references in Sangam Tamil Classics which were brought out in the early century of Christian era They contain evidence to the prevalence of the customs of wearing sandals, garments and ‘Kavasam’. The word used in *Perum-ban-Arun-padai* to denote sandal is *Adipatai Aranam* (sandal ware). *Cilappathikaram* refers shoemakers as *Thol Thunnuner* (skin sticher).

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The sun god, Mitra, is also depicted wearing white half boot when riding. The god’s costume is almost exactly like those of the Sasanian and Parthian kings with a tunic clasped by a broad leather belt, trouser high boots. He is also depicted in a white marble statue of 7th and 8th centuries A.D. where he is clearly wearing half length boots with buttons or perhaps a decorative trim up the middle and around the tops. Another earlier relief of the second century A.D. from Hatra portrays the same kind of scene in which the god holds the hilt of a sword in its leather scabbard, and a leash restraining three lions. Similar descriptions may hold good for the Suriya of the Aryans who invaded India during the same period. The sculpture of Suriya in Delhi National Museum depicted as wearing half boot. The Hindu God, Lord Shiva is depicted wearing tiger skin and having a percussion instrument known as ‘Uddukai’ or ‘Damar in his hand’. A statue of Buddha with sandals (Kolhapuri type) is found in Egmore Museum, Madras.

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Indo-Scythian Kuṣāns in the first century B.C. penetrated north eastern Iran as far as the Caspian sea and ruled in what is now known as Afghanistan. Sir Aurel Stein, the famous British Archaeologist excavating in the Takla Makan desert of Chinese Turkistan, found vast quantities of documents on wood and leather, preserved almost like new and written in Kharosthi, a first-century A.D. Indian script of the Kusans. While two headless but inscribed statues of King Kaniska (2nd century A.D.) depict this Kuṣān monarch wearing a belted tunic and what appears to be a cloak but might be a full skirted coat slung over the shoulders; he has baggy riding trousers gathered at the ankle and tied under his boots by straps. One statue was found by the fire temple constructed by Kaniṣka at Surkh Kotal in northern Afghanistan, Kabul Museum. The other was found at Mathura in India and both portray a costume that obviously developed from the Scythians and Parthians and was the forerunner of the typical Sasanian riding dress. At Bamian, the famous valley of the Buddha, a number of the painted frescoes on the walls and ceilings of the Buddhist cave monasteries depict figures wearing typically Sasanian costume.

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The Indian king well protected went to war on elephant or chariot well protected with body guards, having his regiment of warriors in front marching head in chariot, elephant, horse and foot respectively. As described earlier, each and everyone and the animals in the battle field were all well protected in many ways with leather products brought out by skilled leather craftsmen working day and night intensively and ceaselessly, year after year for centuries in the ancient time. King is followed probably by the supplier of leather tent, boat, leather spares, leather thongs and twisted rope of varying thickness and length, leather mats, seats, curtains, leather dresses to wear in mufty, shoes etc besides other non-leather items.

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Demand from king on leather craftsmen was very high during war and peace time. During peace time, they had to meet the demand of various leather articles for day to day uses like shoes, clothes, caps, bags, boxes, containers, cups, buckets, kavalai (Thol sal), straps, ropes, belts, etc.

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Indian leather craftsmen were kept busy all the time to make leather products for defence uses, civil uses and irrigation and cottage industries’ uses (handloom, oil seed grinding, blacksmith, goldsmith, drum and puppet making, bookbinding, etc.)

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The scales of ant-eater are a special growth of animal skin and provide a natural armour and were used in India, Persia and other countries made a form of Camellias armour with the backing of leather or cloth. Other scales used for the armour in India are fish scales, thick leather piece of 1-2" sq pieces overlapping one above the other and metal scales. This kind of leather pieces are kept in the National Museum, New Delhi. The fish scale armour is in the Patna Museum. Warriors and horses wearing such armour are depicted in Persian sculptures. Body armour covered with scales of untanned hide and with hair remaining is kept in German Leather Museum, Offenbach (Fig. 2).

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The sculptures of Kaniṣka found in Mathura is depicted as wearing leather shoe with corrugation, sword with leather sheath and leather overcoat. We could not say anything about the head gear since the head is missing.

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In the Mahābhārata the shield was termed as Carman. It was made generally of leather adorned with figures or a simple tiger skin or bear skin worn over a body besides the brazen breast plate served as a shield. The shields made of bull hide are highly spoken of. When Duryodhana entered the battle field on an armoured elephant he was followed by among other soldiers, hundred of shield-men (or shield bearers) and archers.

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Many of the styles of riding boots and sandals still survive today demonstrating that little has changed during the past two thousand years and more, so are our utilization of the most versatile and decorative of all natural resources is concerned. The earliest type of footwear used by primitive man was a type of moccasin which was made from single piece of leather gathered around the ankle by leather thong threaded through slot and it was crudely fashioned and it almost looked like a bag. Part of Hittite panel of not less than 1200 B.C. depicts a full shoe developed by them.

Leather Sandal

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A leather sandal took the main role in life according to Kauṭilya 4th century B.C. and therein he says ‘Smearing sandals made of camel hide with the fat of the owl Fig.2. Ancient leathercraft for defence use a) Armour for horse arment b) Armour gauntlet for the right hand and forearm c) Egyptian war chariot d) & (e) Leather shield and the vulture, covering them with leaves of the banyan tree, one walks fifty yojanas without being fatigued’. We know, at present, that it is very comfortable to walk a long distance with shoes instead of bare footed. According to the Hindu caste system, cāmār is the tanner and mocī, the shoe maker. Manu Smriti (first century B.C.) mentions that a pair of leather sandals was a suitable gift for a guru. In the ‘Mitra records’ Toy Cart of Sudraka (first century B.C.) a lady with muslin attire with a pair of leather slippers showing that in ancient time as, at present, woman of the town were in the habit of wearing shoes. The Visnu Purana recommends the use of shoes when walking out of the house, particularly in thorny place and on hot sand. The sun god presented a pair of chappals and umbrella to Jamadagni for protection against the hot sun.

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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

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Panini, the grammarian (350 B.C.) speaks of the anūpadina - a variety of boots. Paramananda (57 B.C.) also mentions it in his Amarkośamālā. The use of hog skin for the preparation of shoes has also been mentioned in the Vedas. Arians says in 2000 B.C., ‘They, the Indians wore shoes made of white leather (probably alum tanned) and they are elaborately trimmed while the shoes are variegated and made of great thickness to make the wearer seem much taller’.

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The footwear worn by Kannappa Nayanar of 10th century A.D. exhibited in the Tanjore Art Gallery appears to have been made of leather. Some miniatures also show the practice of wearing footwear by the ancient Indian rulers. The disciple Raidas, a shoe maker, used to present to all wandering ascetics new shoes. Shoes were offered not only to sadhus but also to gods. Different patterns of Farmers’ shoe like the shepherd shoe, Okhai shoe etc. are available throughout Saurashtra and Kutch regions. Made by the native artisans, these are primarily used by the peasants and other village folks and normally not worn by the educated class of people. Made from the vegetable tanned leather, some varieties are usually heavy and sturdy; some are extremely light and soft. The leather soles and heels are made with several layers and laced with leather thongs tucked with horse shoes and other iron pieces and nails, the sole and heels are noticeably strong to withstand wear and tear. Some variety is plain and simple, but some are heavily adorned with eyelets, tinsels, coloured threads.

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Generally the shoes are not marked for the right or the left which also indicates these are very ancient. The toes are sometimes upturned. Velvet upper with leather lining is used for ladies’ shoes. The marriage shoes are admirably ornamented.

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Kolhapuri chappal is a model footwear of Indian tradition (Fig 3). Its name and fame have gained popularity even across the oceans. The lightness, softness and the walking comforts are the characteristics of Kolhapuri. This is also known as ‘Attani’ and ‘Nippam’ chappal as the ancestors of Kolhapuri chappal makers are said to have hailed from Attani and Nippani in Mysore. Finely decorated with braided laces, the slipper is handmade from bark tanned leather. The sole is laced with leather thongs, the straps of the chappal are attractively made and perforated with hand tools.

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Maharashtra is also the home for another Indian traditional footwear called ‘Horāci’ chappal. The upper of this type of slipper is made from hand woven laces.

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

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Fig.3. Ancient leathercraft for footwear a) Sūrya’s Boot (Delhi National Museum), b) Buddha’s Sandal (Egmore Museum), c) Leather Sandal in Egyptian Tomb (Coutesy Metropolitan Museum of Art) d) Carftsmanship from Punjab The fancy form of Chamba sandal of Himachal is handed down for centuries. The noticeable features of the Chamba sandal are the colourful hand embroidery; and the upturned toe is an elongated strap skillfully incorporated into the woven vamp. The age old pattern of Kabul sandal of the north western frontier and Punjab have some similarities in construction.

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Ladies slipper (juti) from white leather without the mark for the right or left foot are found in Punjab and the neighbouring states. The hand embroidery work of the footwear in white silk are similar to those of the Punjab ‘phulkāri’ techniques.

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The toes of the closed type slippers are broad somewhat round and narrow. The open type is flat.

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It is difficult to reckon how old the pattern of ‘nāgrā juti’ is. The exquisite needle work in gold and silver threads of the juti for both men and woman reflects the Persian style. The gilt ornamental slipper is also known as the bridal shoe ‘Zari juti’ etc. A photograph of excellent embroidered juti has been recorded by John Waterer. The artistic footwear was so fascinating that the native crafts were patronised by the rulers and rich families of India. The artisans flourished mainly in and around Delhi, Rajasthan and Punjab and other northern states. Light in weight, hand dyed and hand stitched, the designs of nāgrā are sometimes plain, sometimes decorated with spangles, tinsels and eyelets. ‘Nari juti’ (slipper for woman) like other ‘nāgrā’ pattern, does not mark for right or left foot as it was common in the ancient time in India and other countries.

Leather Boats/Boxes

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Magasthenese describes in his book on India, the Magadha empire and Candra Gupta Maurya. Arthaśāstra gives a great deal of information regarding the shipping in those days. Candra Gupta maintained a large number of boats and ships for the purpose of trades and also for checking pirates. During the time of Cyprus, the Great, the founder of the Archaemenian (550-350 B.C.), the leather boat even to a capacity of 14 tons were made in Armenia and plied down the river Euphrates by two men carrying wine as principal cargo and, at least, one donkey to carry the leathers of the dismantled boat back to Armenia for reuse. In 512 B.C., the Archaemenian armies crossed the Bosphores by a bridge of leather boats. Saint Brenden lived during A.D. 489-583 sailed using leather on several voyages along the west coast of Ireland. Tim Severin, the author of the book ‘The Brenden Voyage’ published in 1978, re-enacted the scene in 1976-77 and proved such a voyage was feasible. Fine white wood or the native Irish Ash made Brenden’s lattice frame. Nearly two miles of leather thongs was used to hand lash 1600 joints into Brenden’s frame work. The 49 vegetable tanned with Oak bark ox hides (4′ × 3.5′ each) were used and stitched together to cover the frame. Buckets of wool grease was used and painted over the hull to protect the thongs, timber and the leather. Brenden started from Ireland on May 17, 1976 and reached Newfound Land on June 26, 1977 via Faroes islands, Iceland, Greenland, sailing 4500 miles. A leather boat that some had feared would disintegrate in the first gale had successfully crossed the Atlantic. There was no longer any practical objection to the idea that the Irish monks might have sailed in leather boats to North America before the Norseman and long before Columbus.

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Alexander (329 B.C.) crossed Hindukush mountains and Indus river in (328 B.C.) and was welcomed by Ambhi and fought against Porus. Shield in the 4th century B.C. was described in connection with the body armour of Porus which had bewildered the Greek historians. Almost all the Greek warriors were carrying shield which was tied on their back. Similarly the Indian foot soldiers were having shield on their person while the charioteers had kept them inside the chariot. Fully armoured, Porus rode a tall and formidable elephant which in turn, was also well protected.

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Alexander crossed the river probably using his portable tents as boat, 23 miles up in a rainy night with his 12000 men and attacked. Elephants turned bad due to the heavy showers of arrow from behind. The slippery state of the ground prevented the Indian infantry from making full use of their formidable bows which they were customed to draw after resting one end upon the earth. Again due to the muddy ground, the heavy wheeled chariot could not move easily and many of these got fixed in the mud. In the confusion Porus lost control over the army and himself was taken prisoner. Alexander defeated Porus and his men because of his ingenuity in converting the tent into boat and crossing the river swiftly which could not be visualised in time by Porus. Alexander and his men might have contributed considerably during their stay in India for the development of leathercraft for defence purposes. Domesticated animals from the land he conquered were used by his army for meat and skins. The skins or the hides might have been processed by improved methods wherever he was camping with the available local materials and men to make processed parchment and leather products especially for defence uses.

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Leather boat had been in use to sail across the sea, river and lake and also used as a small fishing boat. The small boat can be carried on one's head and found even to-day at Hoegnekal and other river sites where there are no bridges.

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Marco Polo, the Venetian traveller mentions about the dressing of great number of skins of various kinds (goat, ox, buffalo, unicorn, and other animals) in the province of Gujarat in India. He also observed beautiful mats in red and blue leather, exquisitively inlaid with figures of birds and beasts and skilfully embroidered with gold and silver.

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The Arabs, according to Herodotus, had cow hides and other skins stitched together to form a pipe long enough to reach from the river Corys to the desert route in three separate places and then filled them with water for the troops. Another version of supplying the troops with water was that of filling camel skins loaded on to live animal. Carrying water in skins bag on camel back is quite ancient and common even today in Indian deserts.

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Human skins of enemies were used for seating, panelling city wall, covering quivers, drinking, etc. The Assyrian inscription such as one found in the British Museum mention the use of enemies skin to cover the city wall. This was discovered during the excavation of Ninerah. Skinning the enemy in those days even upto the British time in India was not an uncommon thing.

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A leather box complete with surgeon's instruments of fashioned chicken bones dates to the 4000 B.C. A similar fashion in our ancient ayurvedic, unnani and other medical customs cannot be ruled out. It should not be forgotten that the burial of dead body with some belongings in big earthern pot in India was not uncommon and leather articles should have found a place in some of these pots known as ‘urns’. Even in very ancient time, man travelled vast distances taking with him his art and culture to blend with those of other countries.

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In Vedic times, there was no prejudice against using receptacle made of hide for storing butter and ghee. Skin utensils were in great demand in the ancient Aryan society. There were leather bags, vessels etc. for storing water, wine, honey, somabana, etc. In the time of *Rgveda*, leather *Māsaka* for water was well known. It is also mentioned as *‘driti’* and finds use even today in northern India. Leather bag made from camel hide is used for transporting water in the desert regions of Rajasthan and Gujarat. The *Rāmāyaṇa* narrates the practice of watering the street using *‘Masaka’* to reduce the dust nuisance.

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Rajasthan is specially noted for manufacturing decorative leather bottles. Samples of wonderfully decorated and plain leather bottles are kept in the Central Leather Research Institute, Madras. *Kuppi* or *Kuppa* is a native word for leather bottle extensively used in the northern part of India for keeping oil and essence. In preparing these bottles, cut out paper designs or pattern painted in white were inserted beneath a transparent membrane (*Fig. 4*).

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Huka bottle known for a long time is made using clay model. A clay model of the exact form is mounted with raw camel hide or sheep skin in wet condition; after it is completely dried, container becomes very sturdy and durable. These leather bottles are decorated by painting or with cut out paper patterns and stamped designs. The paper patterns are sandwiched between two membrane of raw skin. The exquisite floral designs, sometimes with gold and silver, are traceable to Persian influence.

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There is another type of ancient water carrier (*thol sal*) made with bark tanned hide heavily greased which, in general, is used by the cultivators for irrigation in Southern India. *Kavalai thol* is a South Indian term for a bark tanned short hide hose attached to a huge metal bowl for drawing water from deep wells for irrigation. Leather bags were universally used in India for drawing water from wells. Leather buckets were are also used in villages for drawing water from the wells.

Parchment

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Parchment, dry skin free from hair and flesh, has many uses from time immortal. It was used in very ancient time as string, though strap, tent, boat, container, shield and drum to produce sound came later and found uses in the various percussion instruments, as sheet for writing and in shadow show as puppets of living personalities (mythological and historical) and other (building, forest, chariot, lotus, arrow, club etc.). It has other present use as lamp shade, lamp dome, dividing panels etc.

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It cannot be denied the use of parchments scrolls in India in writing since it was in use in the other ancient countries as early as 2000 B.C. Indeed the earliest known documents on parchment include an Egyptian scroll 2000 B.C. Recently discovered Dead Sea scrolls which included a 23 feet long leather scroll with the complete text of the book of Isaiah dated 100 B.C

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(a)

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(b)

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Fig.4. Ancient leathercraft for boat and container a) Leather Board b) Bottles moulded from camel hide made by natives of Bannu, N.W. Frontier Province of India The Vedas as well as the epics Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata refer to various kinds of drums. The Saṃhitās and the Brāhmaṇas refer to the Bhumi Duṇḍubi (the big earthern drum). The Deva Duṇḍubi (celestial drum) is mentioned in the Rāmāyaṇa. Of the large military drum played with a stick, there were the Ranadhaka and the Jaradhaka with which the heroes of Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata are said to have inspired their legions with military ardour in the battle fields. The Pañcamukha vadyam itself is a royal sacred drum and is played in the Thyagaraja Sannidhi in the temple at Tiruvarur.

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For thousands of years, news was sent by code sounds through parchment instrument for hundreds of miles by the peoples of different civilizations. Various announcements from palaces and worshipping places were also carried through these instruments which are finding a place even today in music concert, orchestra and visual presentations like drama, dance, film and television. The parchment has been expressing from time immemorial man’s joys and sorrows, love and valour, fright and ferociousness, his watery natural calamities spiritual aspirations, patriotic feeling, psychic and physical needs in a tone understandable by people speaking various languages.

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The drums are single and multifaceted. The ‘Udukkai’ has single skinned face. But the right hand at the Mṛdaṅgam has three concentric rings of skin. In the Pañcamukha Vādyam in Tiruvarur, the faces have a circular ring of various types. The four hands along the periphery of the instrument have single skinned faces. The Mrdangam has to be periodically reskinned and the black paste renewed.

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There is a rare instrument known ar Pañcamugam with five faces with deer and other skins fitted to a bronze egg shaped vessel. This type of instrument was known 2300 years ago. In the Pañcamuga Vādyam, the five heads are tuned to five different notes and with the two kuḍa muzha (pot drums) one on either side, the compass of the instrument will complete the sapta svaras.

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The shape of the instrument differs. These were barrel shaped (Mṛdaṅgam) hour glass shaped (Udukkai), cylindrical shaped (Pambai), conical (Damaram), pot shaped (Kuda muzha) etc. Drums are classified as martial drums, ceremonial drums, and message drums. The body of the Mṛdaṅgam is scooped out of single block of wood. Jack wood, red wood or the wood of the Margosa tree is used for making the body. The core of the coconut tree and palm tree are also used for the purpose. On the right of the Mṛdaṅgam, the inner most layer and the next ring are of cow skin and the outer most is of goat skin. First the three skins are stitched over the right head in a tight manner. The outer skin is sliced off the middle to make the inner ring and the inner most layer visible. The skin is stretched over the shell. Then the skin is dried in the sun. The skin of left head with the layers using cow and goat skins are also prepared in the same manner. After drying, both the heads are fixed tightly to the shell by putting circular rings of twisted leather straps on both the drum heads.

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The commonly accepted main classes of instruments are the strings, the wind and the percussion. These instruments were classified in the ancient Tamil Literature as Tholkaruvi (skin instrument eg. Mirudaṅgam), Narambukaruvi (animal gut instrument, eg. Yazh Nāraṅgi), Thulaikaruvi (hole or wind instrument eg. Flute) and *Kañcakaruvi* (metal instrument eg. cymbals). The music is produced by striking, plucking, bowing, rubbing, and shaking. *Tholkaruvi* (Percussion instrument) has an earlier origin. Parchment musical instruments are found in all countries and are used by people belonging to all strata of society from prince to peasant. These instruments contribute rhythm and dynamism to whatever type of music they accompany. Rhythm comes naturally to man, since everything in creation moves towards it. Numerous varieties of drums, veenās, pipes, gongs and bells are shown in the ancient sculptures. The ancient ‘Sāma Veda’ among the four Vedas is devoted to the divine vocal music which was rendered accompanied by suitable musical instrument. The parchment finds use not only in percussion instrument but also in certain type of string instruments. The gut, hair and horn of the animal origin are also used in stringed and wind instruments (Fig. 5).

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Fig.5. Ancient leathercraft using parchment a) Śiva's Dammar b) Shadow Puppet c) Percussion Musical Instruments.

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Alavandar, R. : 1981, ‘Tamil Parchment Musical Instruments in Tamil’, *International Institute of Tamil Studies, Adyar, Madras*. Basf : *Leather Techniques Through the Ages*. Bengal Monographs - *Art in Industry through the Ages*. Bombay Monograph - *Art in Industry through Ages*. Brian, G.E.O. : *Looking at Leather*. Chaitanya, B. : 1978, *Musical Instrument of India*. Das, Abinash Chandra : 1925. *Ṛg veda Culture*. Das, Kashiram : *The Mahābhārata*. *Encyclopedia Britannica*, Vols. 12 & 13. Gurumurthy, S. : 1974, *Archaeology and Tamil Culture*. Johnson, William H. : *Leather Craft*. Kangle, R. : *The Arthaśāstra*, 1865. Krishnaswamy, S. : *Musical Instruments of India*. Madras Monograph - *Art in Industry through Ages*. Matheson, Sylvia A. : *Leather Craft in Ancient Persia*. Mitra, Rajendra : 1881, *Indo-Aryans*, Vols. I & II. Pant, G.N. : *Indian Arms and Armour*. Parker, X. Ley : *Working with Leather*. Raman, H. : *Leather Footwear since Ages*. Ramaswamy, M. : 1983, *Tholparai Nilal Kuthu (Tamil)*, Kamaraj University of Madurai, Tamil Nadu. Reed, R. : *Ancient Skin Parchment and Leather*. Roy Choudhary : 1982, “An Introduction to the Antiquity of the Leather Craft of India”, *Indian Leather*, 16. Roy Choudhary : 1985, “Footwear in the Antiquity of the Leather Craft in India”, *Lexpo 10, Leather Fair Souvenir*. Roy Choudhary : 1987, “Hides and Skins for Rhythm in the Antiquity of the Leather Craft of India”, *Lexpo 12, Leather Fair Souvenir*. Roychoudhary : 1989, “Leather Receptacles in the Antiquity of the Leather Craft of India”, *Voice, March, Vol. 9, No. 3*. Sambamoorthy, P. : 1959, *Laya Vādyas*, All India Handicraft Board, New Delhi. Sarkar, K.T. : *Theory and Practice of Leather Manufacture*. Schrader : 1890, *Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan People*. Selvarangan, R. : 1980, “Technical Aspects of Traditional Tanning in India”, *Leather Market 9.28, 1980*.

Linked texts (15)

Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
Aṣṭādhyāyī — Pāṇini, Sanskrit
Mānava Dharmaśāstra — Manu & Bhṛgu, Sanskrit
Mṛcchakaṭika — Śūdraka, Sanskrit
Cilappatikāram — Iḷaṅkō Aṭikaḷ, Tamil
Ἰνδική — Λούκιος Φλάουιος Ἀρριανός, Ancient Greek
Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai — Kaṭiyalūr Uruttiraṅkaṇṇaṉār, Tamil
Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Veda — Sanskrit
Ṛgvedasaṃhitā — Sanskrit
Brāhmaṇa — Sanskrit
Viṣṇupurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa — Vālmīki, Sanskrit
Saṃhitā
Dundubha — Sanskrit