History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c4: Introduction
History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c4
- Language
- English
Introduction
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Each age has its own technology and the technology carries the stamp of its age. This is a well-known dictum. But this two-way relationship between society at any epoch and its technology, becomes meaningful only when each topic is taken by itself and linked with other areas of technology upon which it was dependent or the age in which it was developed. This approach has not always been made possible since in ancient times there was as such no strict boundary of regions, and material techniques moved with movement of people, through trade, commerce and for livelihood. The modern specialists, on the other hand, are mostly bound by their individual speciality, age, and sometimes their individual country. Availability of document and their exact decipherment are problems to this kind of approach. In a book of technology, the technical details are also of primary importance. Keeping these in mind the series was restricted to technology of Indian subcontinent only based on the survey of literary sources, archaeological reports and materials of different periods and dynasties, and studies made on them from time to time.
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The volume contains contribution of thirty Indian experts and begins with Stone Age and Bronze Age technologies to have some idea of the Indian subcontinent in global context. Various Prehistoric cultural terms like Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze Age etc. are used in Indian context following European and Mediterranean cultures. There is abundant evidence of Stone Age cultures from the time of Pleistocene and these have been described as early, middle and late Stone Age on the basis of major type of Stone industries found in Soan and Beas Valleys (Punjab & Himachal Pradesh) and river of Narmada (Adamgarh, Jabalpur area, Bhera Ghat, Barasimla, Maheshwar etc.), Krishna Bridge, Ganga & Sone valleys (Barkaccha, Sidhpur, Lekhand etc.) and other places around Bombay and Madras. The fashioning of Stone Age tools and techniques, indicates that there was a continuous struggle by prehistoric man for survival which changed skills of fashioning of crude pebbles or lithic tools stage by stage. The next phase of Neolithic culture is marked by some kind of mixed farming, domestication of animals, use of potteries, building of dwelling houses etc, in which the stone is still the basic material of protection.
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The Bronze (copper + tin) is found in use in Indian subcontinent at quite an early phase and became a distinctive feature of the Indus Valley Culture (Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Chanhu-daro & other sites). The materials known to the Indus Valley people are gold, silver and copper in alloy with tin (bronze) and with arsenic and lead. From 200 sample analysis, it is found that 23% copper was alloyed with tin, 12% with arsenic and 5% with lead. Tin and arsenic alloy (with copper) were common with Harappan culture whereas tin alloy (with copper) were exclusively used in post-Harappan Banas, Jorwe and other Chalcolithic cultures. The varied range of copper and bronze implements, weapons and house-hold utensils point to large exploitation of metals and flourishing industry of mining, metallurgy and manufacturing trade. Harappan culture witnessed a remarkable standarization of ceramics, brick sizes, both burnt and mud bricks. The skill of brick layers is visible in great public buildings of the citadel complexes, great bath of Mohenjo-daro and granaries of both Mohenjo-daro & Harappa. There is ample evidence of agricultural activities, textiles, town planning, fabrication of houses, domestication of animals, transportation, arts & crafts attesting the antiquity of many other organised technical activity in later times in which India was well-known. What is that supported this vast technological, economic and social activities ? Is it surplus agriculture ? Huge brick built granaries is of course an indicator. Trade also assisted in two way diffusion of culture and technology.
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Rgvedic civilization (c.1500 - 1000 B.C.) has been underrated by few paradigms like Aryan invasion, rural civilization (with reference to urban Harappan civilization), absence of cosmic order (ṛtam) including scientific spirit. These criticisms are not found meaningful. These get added significance when examined against a backdrop of high monistic order, civil war of oppressed agriculturists living in Haryana & Punjab, semi-urban surroundings of people living side by side and other factors. Iron-use got slowly a new lease of life in Karnataka in South U.P., Rajasthan area in Ahar, Atranjikhera (c.1150 B.C.), and West Bengal - Bihar area in Pandu-rajar Dhibi & Barudih (c 1200 B.C.). This led to some kind of urbanization and power struggle and a complex process of class structure. Originally there was division of labour but no institution of caste. Gradually the impact of caste system categorized people as well as metals, woods and even mundane things into castes and subcastes, a stigma for free exchange of knowledge. The revolt against tradition and conservatism brought in many new ideas and new pursuits. The period from c. 1000 B.C. to the beginning of the Christian era saw new technology with the vedic people. The power struggle and rivalry promoted technology further to protect and augment the power structure. Nanda and Maurya empires flourished. Rapid growth took place in mining, metallurgy, semi-precious gems and weaving industry to manage state control economy. This is clear from the Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya which had prescribed duties for superintendent of mines, metals, coins and mints, ocean-mines etc. The head Superintendent of metals was entrusted to carry on the manufacture of coins, the ocean mine superintendent was for the collection of conch shells, diamonds, precious stones, pearls, corals and regulate commerce on the above activities. There is also reference to guilds of workmen and those who carry on the co-operative along with the details of manufacturing and processing techniques. The work shows unique specialization. To assess the extent of this knowledge, papers have been grouped for better understanding.
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The details of copper mining from Singhbhum belt and Khetri areas, gold mining from Karnataka & Andhra, lead, zinc and silver mining from Rajasthan & Karnataka region show that these were based on traditional techniques. The quantitative analysis by modern methods of some of the metal objects available during this period testify the indigenous source on the basis of their composition, temperature at which these were made, nature of furnaces employed for the purpose, selection of raw materials etc. This furthur corroborates that the forging, lamination and smelting techniques were undoubtedly very old. Carburization of iron was known as early as 6th century B.C. The technique of corrosion-resistant forge-welded structures is still a mystery. The methods of coin-making through punching, casting, reponse and die-struck techniques were well-known. The broad chalcolithic phase also witnessed the growth of hand-made, wheel-thrown and wheel-turned potteries with painted decorations. The BR (the Black & Red) wares of Harappan and post-Harappan sites -Lothal, Ahar, Rangpur, Prakash etc. are unique, and possibly influenced the growth of LR (Lustrous Red) wares of Saurashtra and other sites. The PG (Painted Grey) and NBP (Northern Black Polished) wares found at Atranjikhera, Hastinapur, Alamgirpur etc. are associated with Iron Age and is contemporaneous with Vedic culture (c. 1200 B.C.) in India. The glass objects were valued primarily as objects of art. The evidence of vitreous paste, frit, faience,glazed etc are evolutionary stage of glass making. The manufacturing details, colouring agents and tools used for fabrication of these materials are now fairly known. The beads, steatite beads, limestone, gypsum, alabaster, lapis lazuli, turquoise,quartz or beryl were also considered by the Indians under the categories of gems possibly for their shining surfaces and commercial interest. Intersting details are found on the classification of gems, their sources, etymology, and mining. The manufacture of such a wide varities of material objects indicates that the ancient Indians could control various degrees of heat through multi-faced ovens leading possibly to furnace technology.
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Life, in ancient India was conceived as the manifestation of body, senses and spirit. People were equally prone to new fashion and decorated their own bodies, their homes, temples and gods. Effort was also made to upkeep body and mind and free it from diseases. Obviously plant and animal products got their use very early. But how early metals and metallic compounds began to be used in drugs is not known. The classical works (Bṛhat Trayī) have mentioned the use of mercury and metallic compounds. Later works have given explicit details of conversion techniques of mercury and metals into pharmaceutically suitable components through different alchemical processes. Sandle paste, flower and flower extracts were common as traditional cosmetics and perfumes used in temples and houses. Early works contain details of various ingredients for cosmetics, their manufacturing process and various combinations. The dyes, pigments and mordants were well-known for the colouring of textiles and painting of potteries, metallic surfaces and pictures. When the hand woven technique of textile changed with the discovery of loom, the changes both in the composition of fibers and natural dyes and their combinations became faster. Colouring materials were obtained from vegetable products of indigo (nīla), lac (lākṣā), turmeric (haridrā), madder (mañjiṣṭhā) etc. Minerals like lapis lazuli, calamine ferric oxide lime, lead, blue vitriol etc. were also used. The Surgical techniques developed with the process of survival and was obviously considered as one of the important divisions of Ayurveda. The problems like peptic ulcer, perforation, paracentasis, cauterisation, blood-letting, piles and fistula, problems of stone, laparatomy, hydrocele, rhinoplasty etc were tackled. How were these operations possible in the absence of anaesthesia? The nature of operations, dressing, use of alkali of various strengths both for internal and external application, and the use of 101 blunt and 20 sharp instruments indicate that both pre- and post operative phases were taken care of.
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For correct diagnosis of disease, examination of patients and diseases were recommended through different technical procedures. Clinical observations, diagnosis and cure prospered under medical profession. Critically investigative philosophy came into vogue. The therapeutic techniques for appreciating the cause and nature of the diseases with the systematic medicine through tridoṣa theory was a unique contribution. The soul (ātmā), mind (mana), and body (śarīra) as three components of living entities were considered very important for a holistic treatment towards patients in classical Indian medicine.
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Agriculture is an old practice and ancient Indians had good knowledge of soil, seeds and sowing methods including transplantation, seasons of plantation, use of pesticide, manuring and irrigation. Post-harvest operations of crops, for consumption like grinding, pounding, winnowing, domestic operation like baking, firing, grilling, steaming, cooking under pressure, churning butter and kitchen utensils etc were common. The Soma juice and other fermented drinks with details of base materials, ferments and manufacturing techniques were known from ancient times.
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The period from beginning of the Christian era to c. 500 A.D. saw a lot of transition through Greco-Roman influences. Mathura and Ujjayini became important trade centres. Many important texts were compiled and written. Both national and international trade helped diversification of knowledge & craft of various types and growth of some kind of urbanisation in the South.
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Town-planning during this period was the part of construction including proper orientation of buildings, sanitary, drainage, temples and use of right types of building materials (stones, bricks, rocks, wood, mortars, plasters). Fortification or erection of a physical barrier against a possible danger was a common practice. The test for stability of soil before any construction of temples, and judicious selection of foundation materials were compulsory. The temples were broad based tapering to a point giving built-in stability. All activities of the construction starting from quarrying of stones of right texture, shade, consistency in sculpting, dressing, setting in proper positions and various other related works were supervised by the ancient architect. Construction of reservoirs, canals, sluices, embankments for irrigation work were common both in north and south India. Various type of water lifting devices for continuous and discontinuous water supply were recommended. The examination of roads, bridges, wells, rivers, were part of the system to meet war & domestic requirements through transportation. Animals like cattle, elephants, equines, camels etc became a part of the organized activity and veterinary science developed following ayurveda with reference to diseases, treatment, training and breeding etc. Water transportation also flourished since it was profitable and easy to move in spite of many risks.
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Arts and crafts also flourished. The jewellery made of precious metals, gold, silver & other metals and gems have a special place in Indian tradition. Not only is it an asset, it increases the aesthetic beauty as well. Indian gods and goddesses are also found to have been decorated with forehead, ear, neck, arms, ankle, finger ornaments and ornaments with inlay work and studding of gems. Wooden furniture for household or other purposes were quite common for sittings, reclining, rest, and for different categories of persons and dignitaries (like Brāhmaṇas & Kings). Both hard and soft materials like board & dust, birch-bark, palm leaves, leather, cotton, cloth, paper and ink were used as writing materials. Harder materials were mostly used for engraving and embossing. Leather, leather crafts including processing of skin and their uses, leather dresses, leather boats, boxes, parchments, drums and musical instruments were also important as part of social life. Standardisation in technical crafts and weights and measures were attempted. This is visible in units of length, breadth, area, volume, weight and also time. Indians believed always in a kind of limited & limitless universe. This is also reflected in the system. The concepts of past, present and future have also been found interesting in its various dimensions.
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The Sunga dynasty initiated fudalism and caste system rigidly. The system continued during Kuṣāṇa, Gupta and Śātavāhanas. The late Gupta ruler, Vākāṭaka kings, Bhoja, Cera & Colas continued the practice with rights for management of properties and administration which in turn introduced middlemen through system of lease. Feudal class became an organisation of exploitation and carried little responsibility to mitigate the responses from artisans and ordinary people. The Delhi Iron Pillar ( c. 4th century A.D.), Konarak Temple at Bhuvaneshwar, Dhar Iron Pillar built by Bhoja (c. 1050 A.D.) represented power, technological skill and knowledge.
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The volume gives an idea of some of the important technological practices that developed despite social limitations. This has created also gaps and uncovered areas for study. It is hoped that these gaps will be filled up by experts in future. The work is an out-come of a collaborative effort. The editor is concious of the difficulties for editing such a volume in which a large number of experts and their perceptions are involved. All efforts have been made to make it meaningful and interesting. The editor is indeed thankful to all the contributors for their co operation. However, he will be thankful for any suggestion for improvement. He expresses his sincere gratitude to the members of the Advisory Board (ancient period) and the Indian National Commission for History of Science for general advice and guidance from time to time. He is equally grateful to Dr. N.R. Banerjee & Prof. S.K. Mukherjee for active help & many valuable suggestions. Thanks are also due to Mr. R.N. Ghosh, Mrs Shabnam Shukla, Mrs Kiran Arora & Mr. K. Jayan of the Indian National Science Academy for their ready support in sorting out documents and all possible help. I am no less thankful to Ms. Sharmila Ghosh who has helped in the computerisation of the volume.
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Editor the Roman world, and the most important events of the reign of Antoninus Pius, are related by his biographer, and the reader will not be sorry to find them here in a more concise form. The reign of Antoninus Pius is marked by the rare advantage of furnishing very few materials for history; which is only another mode of saying that its happiness was complete. During the twenty-three years of his administration, the Roman empire was governed by the same invariable maxims of justice and peace. The natives of a vast extent of country were protected by the same laws, and enjoyed the same privileges. The frontiers were defended by the same legions, and the same spirit of moderation and equity prevailed in the councils of the emperor. The death of Antoninus was lamented as a public calamity; and the memory of his virtues was preserved by the gratitude of his subjects, and the imitation of his successor.
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The reign of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, which followed, was a period of great activity and of great events. The empire was attacked on all sides by the barbarians, and the emperor was obliged to spend the greater part of his life in the camp. He was a man of a mild and philosophical temper, and he would have preferred the quiet of the study to the tumult of the field. But he was a prince of a high sense of duty, and he did not shrink from the task which was imposed upon him. He defended the frontiers with vigour, and he defeated the enemies of Rome in many a hard-fought battle. His death was a loss to the empire, and it was felt by all classes of his subjects. He was the last of the good emperors, and with him the golden age of the Roman empire may be said to have terminated.
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The character of the Roman government, under the Antonines, was that of a mild and paternal despotism. The emperor was the source of all power, and his will was the law of the land. But he was restrained by the influence of the senate, and by the force of public opinion. The senate was still a body of great dignity and importance, and its members were the principal officers of the state. The emperor was careful to consult them on all matters of importance, and he was always ready to listen to their advice. The public opinion was also a powerful check upon the actions of the emperor. The people of Rome were still a proud and independent race, and they were not afraid to express their dissatisfaction with the measures of the government. The emperor was aware of this, and he was always careful to avoid any act that would be likely to give offence to the people.
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The administration of justice was one of the most important duties of the emperor. He was the supreme judge of the empire, and he was always ready to hear the complaints of his subjects. He was assisted by a council of jurists, who were the most learned men of the age. The laws were administered with impartiality, and the rights of the citizens were protected. The taxes were moderate, and they were collected with fairness. The public works were carried on with vigour, and the cities of the empire were adorned with magnificent buildings. The trade and commerce of the empire were encouraged, and the people were prosperous and happy. The Roman empire, under the Antonines, was a model of good government, and it was the envy of the world.