Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c18.s3: Three Ancient Indian Traditions in Copper Metallurgy
Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c18.s3
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Three Ancient Indian Traditions in Copper Metallurgy
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In the earlier chapters, we have discussed the three traditions in copper metallurgy: (a) Harappan, (b) Chalcolithic in the Peninsular India, and Fig. 10.1: Ancient Copper-making Furnace at Ambaji, Rajasthan.
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THREE MOULDED TERRACOTTA SEGMENTS OF THE FURNACE
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ASSEMBLED FURNACE
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(c) Copper Hoard in the Eastern India. D.P. Agrawal (1971, 1982, 1984) considers that these three traditions were entirely different. We however feel that there might have been certain meeting grounds.
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The Harappans were rich in copper usage, and were the only people in ancient India to use copper vessels apart from axes and swords. The vessels were made in two parts and joined together by running on and rivetting techniques. (Soldering was used only for noble metals). Metallographic examination shows that the Harappans resorted to open and closed casting, slow cooling of casting, annealing and cold work. (Agrawal, 1971, 1982) Small animal and female figurines like the famous 11 cm high dancing girl statuette were cast by the cire perdue (lost wax) process. A number of axes from Chanhu-Daro and Mohenjo-Daro show pucked surfaces and blow holes, indicating that ‘green poling’ was not done in open moulds to remove oxygen. True saws with teeth and body set alternatively from side to side appear at Mohenjo-Daro, perhaps for the first time in the world.
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Agrawal et al. (1978) reported that Copper Hoard artefacts were not unalloyed as scholars earlier believed. 33 samples from Hami, Bahadurabad, Narsipur, Sadabad, Shahabad and nine other sites were characterised by substantial arsenic alloying. Assay figures showed up to 7.844 per cent, as in a copper celt from Hami. Lead was also used for alloying. In the Harappan artefacts (200 examined), tin was the major alloying element; white 70 per cent artefacts were unalloyed, 10 per cent samples contained 1-7 per cent tin, another 14 per cent assayed 8-12 per cent tin and the remaining 6 per cent assayed 12 per cent of tin. Of the 200 samples examined, only 12 per cent were alloyed with As and 8 per cent with lead. Thus there were less number of samples alloyed with As, and even less number alloyed with Pb. On the other hand, Chalcolithic Culture samples were alloyed more with Pb and Sn than As. Data presented in Table 10.1 show the clear contrast between the three traditions.
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In the West Asian regions, arsenic alloying preceded tin alloying which made a beginning in Iran only during the third millennium BC. On this basis, Agrawal (1978) wondered whether the Copper Hoard Culture started even earlier than the Harappan Culture. There are however no dates to confirm such an antecedance.
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At any rate, arsenical alloying was well-known in the Harappan culture; löllingite (FeAs₂) samples were found in Nal etc. Like tin, arsenic also increases the hardness of copper; however it might have been used as a deoxidiser also. Lead was probably used a flux. Out of 177 Harappan artefacts examined, 4 per cent contained some nickel (assay figure 1 to 9 per cent). Evidently the Harappan civilization produced a wide spectrum of copper artefacts on account of its vast coverage of time and space. This is illustrated in the artefacts from Rangpur, Gujarat a Post-Harappan (2000-1300 BC) site. Whereas Lothal artefacts do not contain much nickel, a copper celt from Rangpur contained as much as 2.10 per cent nickel and a copper pin 5.88 per cent. Nickel in these samples was probably derived from the Rupavati ore in the neighbourhood and not an intentional addition.
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While the three cultures had distinct differences, there might have been some points of contact and even influence. The Chalcolithic Culture (2000-900 BC) had three phases — Kayatha, Malwa and Jorwe; the first phase was probably initiated by some Pre-Harappans like Sothians and Post-Harappans like Aharians. Cast axes from Kayatha are the most beautiful examples of Chalcolithic craft. Navdatolians knew casting and annealing, and their craft excelled that of Aharians. The superb craftsmanship of Daimabad bronzes suggests the link between the Post-Harappan metal-smiths of Gujarat with the southern chalcolithic cultures, which however could not imbibe the Harappan technology of making copper pots and vessels.
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S.R. Rao (1973: 183-84) suggested ‘the diffusion of Harappan technology’ from Kathiawar and Narmada Valley towards the east and the south, and commented:
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The fact that bar-celts and chisels and flat rectangular axes (celts) were as popular in the Copper Hoard and the Indus Valley Cultures should not be overlooked. By 1900 BC the Harappans had already evolved at Lothal the crescentic sleeved axe which is associated with the Copper Hoard people and resembles the Bisauli anthropomorphic figure. (Rao, 1973: 183-84)
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Evidently, Rao differed from Agrawal and Bhardwaj (1970) who did not find any technological resembles among the three early copper and bronze technologies. We may mention certain additional points supporting Rao’s view.
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Similar pure copper artefacts were found at Mitathal in the successive levels of Sothi, Harappan and Copper Hoard Culture occupations. We know that Sothians initiated Chalcolithic Culture at Kayatha which spread towards the Peninsular India. And lastly, it is quite likely that the lead-alloying tradition of the Peninsular Chalcolithic Culture was transmitted to the Copper Hoard Culture at Gungeria (of the Balaghat District, Madhya Pradesh), which yielded 400 kg of copper hoard assaying 1.5 per cent lead. Apart from the 424 implements such as celts, shovels, axe-blades, spades etc. of copper, Gungeria also yielded 102 pieces of thin silver plates weighing about one kg and assaying 96 per cent silver and 3.7 per cent gold. (Neogi, 1917, 1979: 12-13) It may be proposed that Alloying Pattern in the Copper Artefacts of the Harappan, Chalcolithic and Copper Hoard Cultures
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| Culture | Total No. of artefacts | No. of Sn bearing artefacts | % of Sn bearing artefacts | No. of As bearing artefacts | % of As bearing artefacts | No. of Pb bearing artefacts | % of Pb bearing artefacts |
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
| Harappan | 219 | 50 | 22.83 | 26 | 11.87 | 17 | 7.76 |
| Chalcolithic | 29 | 5 | 17.24 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 20.6 |
| Copper Hoard | 33 | 0 | 0 | 15 | 45.45 | 1 | 3.0 |
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| Culture | Total No. of artefacts | No. of Sn+ As bearing artefacts | % of Sn+ As bearing artefacts | No. of Sn+ Pb bearing artefacts | % of Sn+ Pb bearing artefacts | No. of As+ Pb bearing artefacts | % of As+ Pb bearing artefacts |
| | | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 |
| Harappan | 219 | 9 | 4.11 | 14 | 6.4 | 3 | 1.4 |
| Chalcolithic | 29 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 17.24 | 0 | 0 |
| Copper Hoard | 33 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 6.0 |
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lead, silver and gold originated from the argentiferous lead ore mines in Peninsular India, and copper came from Bihar.
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Characterised chiefly by the antennae sword, anthropomorph and the harpoon, the Copper Hoard Culture also produced celts, axe-blades, socketed axes which ended up in Gungeria and the Uttar Pradesh/Bihar sites of the Historical Period. The exclusive occurrence of bar-celts in the eastern region may indicate their use for crowbar-like operations in mining in the Bihar area which supplied the raw material for copper. The Copper Hoard people knew the closed casting method like the Harappans. Many artefacts were made by cutting metal sheets and hammering. Metallographic examination of a few lead-alloyed specimens showed evidences of slow cooling, cold work and annealing; these techniques might have been acquired from the Chalcolithic Culture.