Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c19.s6.t8: Powdery Materials
Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c19.s6.t8
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Powdery Materials
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Several powdery materials were found carefully stored. Chemical analysis suggested that these different materials could be (a) mixture of lime, brick powder and clay possibly used as mortar and plastering the walls, (b) mixture of lime and sand, (c) mixture of clay and sand used either for plastering or for making pottery, (d) fine-grained white powdery material assaying 40.6 per cent CaO and 9.3 per cent MgO possibly a mixture of lime (now converted to CaCO₃) and talc used as pigment for painting.
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The excavations at Atrañjikhera have contributed towards partial bridging of the knowledge-gap between the Harappan (ending 2000 BC) and the historical era (starting around 600 BC) in India. We find here gradual transition from the OCP culture (around 1600 BC) through B&RW and PGW era to the flourishing NBPW culture (ending up to 50 BC). There are interruptions due to flood but never any violent instrusion of an alien culture.
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The OCP and B&RW cultures most probably came from Ahar, Gilund and Ranathambhor areas of Rajasthan. There were continued uses of quartzite, chalcedony, agate, carnelian and chalcolithic objects. The PGW culture at Atrañjikhera made remarkable use of pure and alloyed copper. The people had revived the Harappan tradition of using bronze and following the earlier examples of alloying copper with tin, lead and zinc. The presence of small quantities of S and Fe indicates that copper might have been smelted from chalcopyrite ore of Rajasthan.
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The most spectacular find of the twelfth century BC, Painted Grey Ware stratum of Atrañjikhera, exhibits one of the earliest uses of iron in India. Apart from 135 iron objects, specific tools used by blacksmiths and carpenters, a few furnaces and slags were discovered. These show that not only were iron goods manufactured at this site, but the smelting of iron ore was also carried out here.
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It is difficult for us to agree with Agrawal and Gaur (Gaur, 1983: 219-20, 496) that iron was made here from iron shale sample collected from the Agra-Gwalior range and assayed by them. Their sample contains 21.69 per cent Fe₂O₃. How could such a poor raw material be smelted to yield a slag containing as high as 63-66 per cent Fe₂O₃? Evidently some better raw material was smelted. We also do not agree with Gaur (Gaur, 1983: 220) that the metallic content was obtained in the ‘fluid form’. In the early days, temperature of the furnace never exceeded melting point of iron, and the metal was obtained essentially through solid state reduction.
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That iron became popular in Atrañjikhera day-by-day is proven by the increasing numbers of the iron specimens found in the successive phases of the PGW culture: A (8), B (46) and C (81). During the NBPW period, iron objects used were larger in number and greater in diversity and sophistication. By the sixth century BC, India had entered into the second epoch (after the Harappan) of urbanisation. This was possible due to the discovery of iron, clearance of monsoon forests, agricultural surplus, making of roads, and widespread trade.
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During the NBPW era, starting from 600 BC, use of sajji maṭṭi as the source of soda and lime, making of glass and uses of agate, carnelian, quartz, jasper etc. were intensified. Varieties of beads, stone and metal objects were fabricated and used. During the Maurya and Śuṅga dynasty, copper and even lead coins were used. India had indeed entered the phase of irreversible urbanisation at the start of the NBPW era.
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Gaur, R.C., 1983, *Excavations at Atranjikhera — Early Civilization of the Upper Ganga Basin*, Aligarh Muslim University and Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi.
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Hegde, K.T.M., 1987, “Scientific Basis of the Technology of the Three Ancient Indian Ceramic Industries”, In *Archaeology & History — Essays in Memory of Sri A. Ghosh*, edited by B.M. Pande and B.D. Chattopadhyaya, Agam Kala Prakashan, Delhi, Vol. I, pp. 401-10.
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Lal, B.B., “The Copper Hoard Culture at the Ganga Valley”, In *Antiquity*, Vol. 46, 1972, pp. 282-87; A Note on the Excavation at Jaipur, In *Purātattva*, no. 5, 1971-72, pp. 46-49.
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were used to make beads and bangles and the NBPW was the main pottery. The second phase (c. 300 B.C. to 200 B.C.) is characterized by the use of iron, copper, and terracotta objects. The third phase (c. 200 B.C. to 100 A.D.) is marked by the use of iron, copper, and terracotta objects. The fourth phase (c. 100 A.D. to 300 A.D.) is marked by the use of iron, copper, and terracotta objects.
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During the NBPW age, starting from 600 B.C., the use of iron objects and the casting of glass and terracotta, etc., are quite intensified. Varieties of beads, stone and metal objects were manufactured. The iron objects were used for agriculture and warfare. The iron technology was developed by the people of the NBPW age.
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Reference: Gaur, R.C. (1983). Excavations at Atranjikhera: Early Civilization of the Upper Ganga Basin. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. The site of Atranjikhera is located in the Etah district of Uttar Pradesh. It is a key site for understanding the transition from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age in the Ganga valley.
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The lower chronological limit of the twelfth century B.C. Painted Grey Ware culture of Atranjikhera, which is one of the earliest occurrences in India. Apart from this, the site is also motivated by the copper and terracotta, a few furnaces and slags are also found. It is clear that iron work from these excavations at this site, because smelting process was also carried out here.
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It is difficult to fully agree with Agrawal and Chakrabarti (1985: 219-20, 495) that iron was made here from iron shale samples taken from the Atranjikhera rings and analyzed by them. Their sample contains 31.40 per cent Fe O. They could smelt a better raw material, better accessible if slag containing as high as 60-70 per cent Fe O. Evidently some better raw material was smelted. We also do not agree with Gaur (1983: 220) that the metallic content was obtained directly from the ore, because the temperature of the furnace even needed smelting point of iron, and the metal was obtained essentially through solid state reduction.
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That iron became popular in Atranjikhera day by day is shown by the increasing number of the iron objects found in the successive phases of the PGW culture. As we noted (1983: 217) during the NBPW period, iron objects increased.