[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Science, technology and education](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science) › [Minerals and Metals in Ancient India](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996) › v1.c19.s6 # Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c19.s6: NBP Culture Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c19.s6 - **Language:** English ## Contents - [v1.c19.s6.t1 NBPW Pottery Constituents](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t1) — 2 parts - [v1.c19.s6.t2 Terracotta](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t2) — 2 parts - [v1.c19.s6.t3 Semi-Precious Stone Beads](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t3) — 10 parts - [v1.c19.s6.t4 Iron Objects](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t4) — 2 parts - [v1.c19.s6.t5 Copper Objects](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t5) — 1 part - [v1.c19.s6.t6 Other Metal Objects](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t6) — 3 parts - [v1.c19.s6.t7 Fragment of a Crucible](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t7) — 1 part - [v1.c19.s6.t8 Powdery Materials](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t8) — 16 parts ### NBP Culture ### [v1.c19.s6.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.1) The major part of the mound came under occupation during Period IV, represented by the well-known deluxe industry of the Northern Black Polished Ware. On the basis of the evolution of the pottery-types, terracotta figurines, iron tools and other cultural equipment, the five metre thick deposit of the NBPW period may be divided into four phases viz. A, B, C and D. ### NBPW Pottery Constituents ### [v1.c19.s6.t1.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t1.1) The NBP sherds are highly glossy, surface ranging from grey or brown to black in different shades. the paste is well levigated as discussed under PGW. Hegde (1987) has proved that red ochre was used to paint PGW, and baking around 600-700°C in a reducing atmosphere produced the black marks of magnetite. Red ochre was ground with clay to produce the burnished black slip on the Black Slipped Ware (BSW). In the NBPW stage, red ochre must have been ground with clay and sajji maṭṭi, the vitrefying substance, which produced the shining glaze during baking. The ware was baked twice: first at 600-700°C, then the paint was applied and the second baking was done at a higher temperature may be 800-1000°C in reducing atmosphere. The slip glaze shows much higher proportion of Na₂O and CaO compared to the composition of the core of NBPW (vide Table 11.4). High percentage of sodium in the glaze imparts to it a higher coefficient of thermal expansion than that of the cores, resulting in its cracking and peeling in course of time. ### [v1.c19.s6.t1.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t1.2) The widespread use of sajji maṭṭi was started in the PGW era and it continued in the NBPW period starting around 600 BC. Its use in making soft glass was followed by its use in providing shining glaze to the deluxe ware. ### Terracotta ### [v1.c19.s6.t2.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t2.1) Among the antiquities of this period, terracotta objects surpass all the other items in number. These include a variety of objects such as toys, decorative material, curiosities, ritualistic items and the like. Clay has always been the most easily available plastic material. Therefore, this material served as the medium for the expression of artistic talents as well as models for artefacts made of other materials. Terracotta figurines and objects reflected the cultural pattern of the NBPW era such as terracotta plaque depicting \*gajalakṣmī\* in an apsidal temple etc. ### [v1.c19.s6.t2.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t2.2) Furthermore, one hundred and fifty terracotta beads have been reported from different levels of Period IV. Sixty beads were found broken or damaged. A majority of the beads are nicely shaped while some are crudely modelled. Most of them were well-baked, but some were sundried. Out of these, seventy-five beads had been treated with slip. ### Semi-Precious Stone Beads ### [v1.c19.s6.t3.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t3.1) In all sixty beads of semi-precious stones have been recovered from different phases of Period IV. ### [v1.c19.s6.t3.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t3.2) The break-down of the beads according to the materials is ### [v1.c19.s6.t3.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t3.3) | Agate | - | 25 | | Carnelian | - | 15 | | Quartz | - | 8 | | Jasper | - | 10 | | Marble | - | 1 | | Soapstone | - | 1 | ### [v1.c19.s6.t3.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t3.4) A few beads of carnelian and agate are etched. The two common patterns are: (a) pentagonal design with dots all over the body, and (b) elongated loops at alternate intervals within zonal bands at the margin. Besides these, thirty-three new types, beads having flat square-biconical sides with diagonal perforation, faceted decagonal with perforation near the tapering end, and long corrugated barrel elliptical, need special mention. ### [v1.c19.s6.t3.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t3.5) Stone Objects ### [v1.c19.s6.t3.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t3.6) Thirty-two stone objects and fifty-one broken pieces of sandstone have been recovered from the different levels of Period IV. The objects include animal figures, pestles, grinders, querns, disc, bead, bells and miscellaneous objects. ### [v1.c19.s6.t3.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t3.7) Percentage Composition of Slip Glaze and Core of NBPW ### [v1.c19.s6.t3.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t3.8) | Site | Specimen | SiO₂ | Al₂O₃ | Fe₂O₃ | Na₂O | CaO | Undeter-mined | | Mathura | Slip glaze | 61.51 | 7.82 | 10.26 | 13.39 | 3.42 | 3.60 | | Hastinapura | Slip glaze | 60.53 | 8.21 | 11.39 | 12.81 | 3.82 | 3.24 | | Kausambi | Slip glaze | 64.26 | 7.24 | 8.38 | 11.73 | 2.64 | 5.75 | | Mathura | Core | 64.78 | 27.62 | 1.21 | 0.39 | 0.52 | 5.48 | | Hastinapura | Core | 64.89 | 26.92 | 1.48 | 0.72 | 0.64 | 5.35 | | Kausambi | Core | 70.16 | 22.21 | 0.76 | 0.64 | 0.32 | 5.91 | ### [v1.c19.s6.t3.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t3.9) \* As the slip glaze is very thin and much harder than the core of the pottery, the slip glaze sample analyzed were slightly contaminated with portions scraped from the core of the pottery. ### [v1.c19.s6.t3.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t3.10) Seventeen glass and five shell objects including a few indeterminate pieces were recovered from the various levels of Period IV. These include seven glass beads, three glass bangles, three glass weights and four indeterminate glass figures. Among the shell objects only three shell bangles and two indeterminate fragments of shells were found. ### Iron Objects ### [v1.c19.s6.t4.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t4.1) Three hundred and thirty-eight iron objects including 37 indeterminate pieces were recovered from the various strata of Period IV. The identifiable objects comprise of 30 items including 12 slag pieces and 12 broken pieces of bars. While almost all the items found in Period III continue, 16 new items are noticed during this period. Agricultural tools appear for the first time during Period IV. Their use must have increased the agricultural output to provide surplus, an essential factor for urbanisation. The building activity also increased considerably due to the use of many new tools, including plumb-bob for fixing vertical alignment of the walls. The tools of blacksmiths and carpenters are found in large numbers, indicating the growing importance of their crafts. The blacksmiths’ furnaces were noticed more frequently during Period IV than in the habitational layers of Period III. Obviously, the wider use of iron in Period IV had a considerable effect on economic life of the town. ### [v1.c19.s6.t4.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t4.2) In this phase the main iron objects were arrowhead, spearhead, shaft, sickle, spud, ploughshare, hoe, digger, tongs, clamp, ring-fastener, socketed-clamp, staple, bolt, plumb-bob, nail, bar, hook, borer, chopping-knife, chopper pipe, scraper, chisel, axe, knife, lid, disc, bangle, lump (slag) and a few indeterminate objects. (Gaur, 1983: 422-25) ### Copper Objects ### [v1.c19.s6.t5.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t5.1) Eighty-eight copper objects were recovered from the different levels of Period IV. Thirteen belong to Phase A, twenty-one to Phase B, twenty-five to Phase C and twenty-nine to Phase D. During this period, copper was used for a wide range of objects. More than half of the objects were found damaged. The most exquisite piece of art is a pair of frogs, obviously made in the same mould. The fragment of basin suggests that copper posts and pans were used perhaps by the privileged class. As many as three clamps, all of similar shape were recovered from the upper phase. This might have been used for joining lighter objects with the help of small nails as their thin sections, as tiny holes indicate. Among other items were antimony-rods, nail-parer, rods, ferrule, sockets, tube, ornaments, etc. Apart from this, few copper coins were also found from this stratum. Punch-marked and uninscribed coins contained typical Aryan symbols. ### Other Metal Objects ### [v1.c19.s6.t6.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t6.1) Only four small gold pieces have been found during the course of the excavation and all came from Phase D. These include two tiny pieces of indeterminate use, weighing hardly 1.25 gms and two circular foils. ### [v1.c19.s6.t6.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t6.2) A small rounded lump or ball of lead has been recovered from Phase C. Lead was used in coinage during this period. The lead coin of Sujestha (around 140 BC) of the Śuṅga dynasty shows Lakṣmī on lotus flower and elephant holding umbrella over. ### [v1.c19.s6.t6.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t6.3) To some extent silver was also used during this period; a few silver coins were found from this period. ### Fragment of a Crucible ### [v1.c19.s6.t7.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t7.1) The crucible piece was examined under a microscope and the contained matter was chemically analysed. On one side of the piece a glassy slag like material was sticking. The material used for the crucible is refractory in nature made mostly from sand and clay. It could withstand high temperatures. It is difficult to say for what purpose this was used. ### Powdery Materials ### [v1.c19.s6.t8.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t8.1) Several powdery materials were found carefully stored. Chemical analysis suggested that these different materials could be (a) mixture of lime, brick powder and clay possibly used as mortar and plastering the walls, (b) mixture of lime and sand, (c) mixture of clay and sand used either for plastering or for making pottery, (d) fine-grained white powdery material assaying 40.6 per cent CaO and 9.3 per cent MgO possibly a mixture of lime (now converted to CaCO₃) and talc used as pigment for painting. ### [v1.c19.s6.t8.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t8.2) The excavations at Atrañjikhera have contributed towards partial bridging of the knowledge-gap between the Harappan (ending 2000 BC) and the historical era (starting around 600 BC) in India. We find here gradual transition from the OCP culture (around 1600 BC) through B&RW and PGW era to the flourishing NBPW culture (ending up to 50 BC). There are interruptions due to flood but never any violent instrusion of an alien culture. ### [v1.c19.s6.t8.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t8.3) The OCP and B&RW cultures most probably came from Ahar, Gilund and Ranathambhor areas of Rajasthan. There were continued uses of quartzite, chalcedony, agate, carnelian and chalcolithic objects. The PGW culture at Atrañjikhera made remarkable use of pure and alloyed copper. The people had revived the Harappan tradition of using bronze and following the earlier examples of alloying copper with tin, lead and zinc. The presence of small quantities of S and Fe indicates that copper might have been smelted from chalcopyrite ore of Rajasthan. ### [v1.c19.s6.t8.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t8.4) The most spectacular find of the twelfth century BC, Painted Grey Ware stratum of Atrañjikhera, exhibits one of the earliest uses of iron in India. Apart from 135 iron objects, specific tools used by blacksmiths and carpenters, a few furnaces and slags were discovered. These show that not only were iron goods manufactured at this site, but the smelting of iron ore was also carried out here. ### [v1.c19.s6.t8.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t8.5) It is difficult for us to agree with Agrawal and Gaur (Gaur, 1983: 219-20, 496) that iron was made here from iron shale sample collected from the Agra-Gwalior range and assayed by them. Their sample contains 21.69 per cent Fe₂O₃. How could such a poor raw material be smelted to yield a slag containing as high as 63-66 per cent Fe₂O₃? Evidently some better raw material was smelted. We also do not agree with Gaur (Gaur, 1983: 220) that the metallic content was obtained in the ‘fluid form’. In the early days, temperature of the furnace never exceeded melting point of iron, and the metal was obtained essentially through solid state reduction. ### [v1.c19.s6.t8.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t8.6) That iron became popular in Atrañjikhera day-by-day is proven by the increasing numbers of the iron specimens found in the successive phases of the PGW culture: A (8), B (46) and C (81). During the NBPW period, iron objects used were larger in number and greater in diversity and sophistication. By the sixth century BC, India had entered into the second epoch (after the Harappan) of urbanisation. This was possible due to the discovery of iron, clearance of monsoon forests, agricultural surplus, making of roads, and widespread trade. ### [v1.c19.s6.t8.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t8.7) During the NBPW era, starting from 600 BC, use of sajji maṭṭi as the source of soda and lime, making of glass and uses of agate, carnelian, quartz, jasper etc. were intensified. Varieties of beads, stone and metal objects were fabricated and used. During the Maurya and Śuṅga dynasty, copper and even lead coins were used. India had indeed entered the phase of irreversible urbanisation at the start of the NBPW era. ### [v1.c19.s6.t8.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t8.8) Gaur, R.C., 1983, \*Excavations at Atranjikhera — Early Civilization of the Upper Ganga Basin\*, Aligarh Muslim University and Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. ### [v1.c19.s6.t8.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t8.9) Hegde, K.T.M., 1987, “Scientific Basis of the Technology of the Three Ancient Indian Ceramic Industries”, In \*Archaeology & History — Essays in Memory of Sri A. Ghosh\*, edited by B.M. Pande and B.D. Chattopadhyaya, Agam Kala Prakashan, Delhi, Vol. I, pp. 401-10. ### [v1.c19.s6.t8.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t8.10) Lal, B.B., “The Copper Hoard Culture at the Ganga Valley”, In \*Antiquity\*, Vol. 46, 1972, pp. 282-87; A Note on the Excavation at Jaipur, In \*Purātattva\*, no. 5, 1971-72, pp. 46-49. ### [v1.c19.s6.t8.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t8.11) were used to make beads and bangles and the NBPW was the main pottery. The second phase (c. 300 B.C. to 200 B.C.) is characterized by the use of iron, copper, and terracotta objects. The third phase (c. 200 B.C. to 100 A.D.) is marked by the use of iron, copper, and terracotta objects. The fourth phase (c. 100 A.D. to 300 A.D.) is marked by the use of iron, copper, and terracotta objects. ### [v1.c19.s6.t8.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t8.12) During the NBPW age, starting from 600 B.C., the use of iron objects and the casting of glass and terracotta, etc., are quite intensified. Varieties of beads, stone and metal objects were manufactured. The iron objects were used for agriculture and warfare. The iron technology was developed by the people of the NBPW age. ### [v1.c19.s6.t8.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t8.13) Reference: Gaur, R.C. (1983). Excavations at Atranjikhera: Early Civilization of the Upper Ganga Basin. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. The site of Atranjikhera is located in the Etah district of Uttar Pradesh. It is a key site for understanding the transition from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age in the Ganga valley. ### [v1.c19.s6.t8.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t8.14) The lower chronological limit of the twelfth century B.C. Painted Grey Ware culture of Atranjikhera, which is one of the earliest occurrences in India. Apart from this, the site is also motivated by the copper and terracotta, a few furnaces and slags are also found. It is clear that iron work from these excavations at this site, because smelting process was also carried out here. ### [v1.c19.s6.t8.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t8.15) It is difficult to fully agree with Agrawal and Chakrabarti (1985: 219-20, 495) that iron was made here from iron shale samples taken from the Atranjikhera rings and analyzed by them. Their sample contains 31.40 per cent Fe O. They could smelt a better raw material, better accessible if slag containing as high as 60-70 per cent Fe O. Evidently some better raw material was smelted. We also do not agree with Gaur (1983: 220) that the metallic content was obtained directly from the ore, because the temperature of the furnace even needed smelting point of iron, and the metal was obtained essentially through solid state reduction. ### [v1.c19.s6.t8.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6.t8.16) That iron became popular in Atranjikhera day by day is shown by the increasing number of the iron objects found in the successive phases of the PGW culture. As we noted (1983: 217) during the NBPW period, iron objects increased. ## Linked texts (2) - [Atranjikhera](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.atranjikhera) - [Gilund](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.gilund) --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.biswas-1996.v1.c19.s6) · Pramāṇa