Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c20.s3.t2: B. Iron Age Culture of North India
Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c20.s3.t2
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B. Iron Age Culture of North India
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Having discounted the claims of Ahar, Loebarn, Pirak, Timargarh etc. (vide fig. 12.2 taken from Prakash and Tripathi, 1986) for being the earliest Iron Age Sites in India, we are left with the dates of Atrañjikhera (1155 BC) and Tadakanhalli (12th century BC). Until new data force us to review our stand, we may propose that the advent of iron took place in India indigenously and independently in at least two nuclear zones: Rajasthan-Uttar Pradesh area in the north and Karnataka area in the south. We do not preclude independent contribution from the West Bengal-Bihar area in the east.
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Regarding iron age in north India, one of the most crucial sites is that of Atrañjikhera which we have discussed in chapter 11. The iron-bearing layer, C-14 dated 1155 ± 110 BC (sample TF-191) is associated with the PGW phase which was preceded at Atrañjikhera by OCP phase (up to 1500 BC) and B&RW (black and red ware) phase (1450-1200 BC). The B&RW potteries resembled those of the Ahar and Gilund complexes. It is quite probable that around 1400-1300 BC, a branch of the BRW people left Ahar region, which is not far away, crossed Chambal and settled at Atrañjikhera and then Noh. (Gaur, 1983: 20) The copper-smiths in their group might have stumbled on to the discovery of illdefined wrought iron as indicated by the presence of a few indeterminate objects which have not been so far analysed. In the PGW phase also, fourteen indeterminate objects were obtained along with iron slag pieces and 135 iron objects of 14 varieties. The indeterminate objects could be the results of first few smelting experiments, and if so, the credit for discovering iron at Atrañjikhera area should go to the B&RW people, rather than the PGW culture.
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We have similar situations at Noh and Jodhpura. Noh provided a C-14 date of 900 ± 225 BC. (UCLA-703 B sample) for its PGW phase and two bits of iron were obtained in the preceding B&RW phase. At Jodhpura, iron slag was found from the black-and-red ware level, and crucibles and hearth in the PGW level. Thus we may say that the rudiments of iron technology were evolved in different sites around Rajasthan and western U.P. during the B&RW era. The early experiments for producing iron might have been performed by the copper-smiths from the Rajasthan sites of Ahar, Noh and Jodhpura.
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A remarkable evidence of iron smelting has come from Jodhpura in Rajasthan. (Agrawal, 1984: 255) A crucible-shaped furnace used for direct reduction of ore was discovered. Perhaps the bloom was heated in an open furnace and was forged on an adjacent platform. Some lumps of ore were also discovered. Such high grade ore is known from the nearby mines of Bania Ka Bas, Morija, Rampura etc. in Jaipur district. For Atrañjikhera iron, ore could have been obtained from the Jaipur area or the rich haematite deposits around Mirzapur with which the cave drawings were executed.
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While PGW is normally associated with iron in north India (Tripathi, 1976: 99-106), it should be noted that PGW was primarily a de luxe ware arising amidst a larger proportion of red ware along with grey, black slipped and B&RW, traditions of which persisted. The PGW tradition continued from 1200-400 BC while the more sophisticated NBPW was introduced around 700 BC. The sequential developments of the above-mentioned wares were not essentially linked with the developement of iron technology; these traditions varied from site to site. For example, the PGW was found in non-iron Late-Harappan, non-iron late Chalcolithic, early Iron Age and late phase of Iron Age contexts. Similarly the NBP ware era continued from 700 BC to the Kuṣāṇa period and witnessed several phases of the Iron Age.
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Thus, the dating of sites cannot be done in terms of the appearances of PGW and NBPW which took place at different time in different sites. Tandon (1967-68) believes that at Alamgirpur iron appeared around 800 BC even though the PGW layer in the site has been C-14 dated as 1025 BC. Allahpur in the Meerut district has yielded a rich collection of iron consisting of spearheads, arrow-heads, blades, rods, pins and nails, along with slags of iron. The PGW layers in Śrāvastī, Kauśāmbī, Hastināpur, Bairat, Atrañjikhera etc. have yielded rich varities of iron objects. Tripathi (1976: 101-02) has noticed a gradual evolution of the iron tool-types in the PGW/NBPW layers over centuries. Hunting tools were the earliest types to be evolved: spearheads, arrowheads, points, socketed tangs, blades etc. Then agricultural tools such as sickle (Atrañjikhera) and axe (Noh) were evolved. Later, household objects such as knives or tongs (Atrañjikhera) and lastly building materials such as rods, pins and nails were manufactured and used.
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There is a general correlation between the evolution of iron tool-types and material prosperity in the ancient north India. (Tripathi, 1990) Forests could be cleared, wild animals tackled and with the tools for digging wells, the congested sites could be moved far away from the rivers. Improved spades and ploughshares brought in varieties of agricultural crops. Surplus production led to the emergence of large sites like Jakhera, more sites in the Kanpur area and cities like Vārāṇasī, Kauśāmbī etc. The second urbanisation in India inevitably led to mahājanapadas and empires, and evolution of more sophisticated iron weapons for warfare.