Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c20.s3.t4: D & E. Iron Age in the Megalithic Cultures of the Peninsular and Central India
Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c20.s3.t4
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D & E. Iron Age in the Megalithic Cultures of the Peninsular and Central India
v1.c20.s3.t4.1
South India evolved a mega (big) lithic (stone) culture in which the burials were surrounded by a circle of stone boulders; this culture extending gradually to the Central India and even trans-Vindhyan areas, exhibited early traditions of the use of iron.
v1.c20.s3.t4.2
In 1823, Babington discovered a rock-cut burial chamber in Malabar. Since then, 1400 megalithic sites have been brought to light — 1116 in the region of Peninsular India. (Deo, 1985) The largest number of megalith monuments have been found in Tamil Nadu (388), followed by Karnataka (300), Kerala (188), Andhra Pradesh (147), Maharashtra (90) and Pondicherry (3). There are some megalithic sites north of Vindhya range such as in the Mirzapur district. Apart from the megalithic tombs and graves, we have the neighbouring habitation sites. The contemporaneity of iron age habitation and the burials have been proved at least in some cases, as in Brahmagiri and Maski. (Nagaraja Rao, 1971 and 1981) .
v1.c20.s3.t4.3
The megalithic burials may be broadly classified into three groups: the chamber tombs, the unchambered graves and monuments not actually associated with burials. There are many sub-groups such as (a) urn burial, (b) sarchophagus burial, (c) pit burial, (d) dolmen or table-stone-chamber raised from above the ground, (e) passage chambers of north Karnataka, (f) port-hole chambers (g) topikal or hat-stone in the lateritic area of Kerala, (h) kudaikal or umbrella-stone at Kolappuram, Koduvayur etc., (i) menhirs or long-stone in Kerala and Andhra Pradesh, (j) rock-cut chambers of Kerala (k) cists or round receptacles stones in the quartzite-sandstone region of Andhra-Karnataka, (l) stone circle with cairn filling in Vidarbha region and so on.
v1.c20.s3.t4.4
We are not sure whether the varieties as stated above are due to differences in traditions of the sub-cultures or geological diversity regarding the availability of stones or both. We should not overlook the wide range of the dates of these megalith sites. The MASCA corrected date of the Hallur site is 1200 BC. On the other end of the spectrum is the Coimbatore megalith in which Roman coins (Christian era) have been found.
v1.c20.s3.t4.5
Amidst the diversities in time and place, one commonality emerges in the megalith sites; as early as 1921, L. Munn pointed out that the megalithic sites were close to the ancient mine sites in the region. Sundara (1975) emphasized that the Kappatgudda range in South India, where there is a number of megalithic sites, “is rich in gold as well as in iron and has many gold-working pits and sites strewn with iron slags”. Very useful comments have been made by Vibha Tripathi and V.D. Misra with reference to Deo’s (1985) paper on megaliths. Tripathi commented that “the megalith-builders basically appear to have been smelters and makers of a wide variety of metallic objects, iron being the most important among them”. She felt that they were nomads and marginal agriculturists. Misra partially disagreed and pointed out that ‘the very existence of the professional groups — potters, copper-smiths, black-smiths, bead-makers etc. — presupposes surplus production, however marginal it might have been”.
v1.c20.s3.t4.6
The earliest phase of the Iron Age in the South has been revealed in the excavation at Piklihal and Hallur (1150-1030 BC) and the Karnataka sites of Tadakanhalli, Komaranhalli etc. In many of these sites, the Iron Age started almost from the neolithic stage. Further north in Central India, megalithic sites are dated somewhat later 800-700 BC, and it is possible that the Chalcolithic sites imbibed Iron Age Culture from the megalithic people.
v1.c20.s3.t4.7
Among the most common tools are flat iron axes, often with crossed iron bands for hafting. The shaft-hole axe of North India (Noh and other sites) is unknown in the Iron Age graves of South India. There are flanged spade, hoc, spud or pick axe, sickles or bill-hooks made or iron. Iron wedges or crowbars or perhaps spears of great length; knives, chisels, tripods, daggers and swords, some time with ornamented bronze hilts were meant for military purposes. Iron tridents, in one case with a wrought iron buffalo attached to the shaft, are reminiscent of (Śiva-Durgā) ritual tradition. Around Nagpur graves were found horse furniture, iron snaffle bits, cheek pieces found in the mouth of a buried horse.
v1.c20.s3.t4.8
The traditions of the Iron Age as stated above were evolved over centuries and across a large section of the sub-continent; these definitely started in southernmost India, but the origin of the culture is shrouded in mystery. There are unfounded and wild speculations that the culture had diffused from Egypt, Arab countries or the North-West, people coming to South India by boat (Tripathi, 1973: 274; Allchins, 1982: 340-43) and so on. However, we would support the notion of indigenous and independent development of Iron Age in South India unless new facts prove the contrary.