Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c28.s1: Stones and Gems
Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c28.s1
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Contents
- v1.c28.s1.t1 The Buddhist Relic Caskets — 4 parts
- v1.c28.s1.t2 Historical Period Art-Works and Stones — 9 parts
Stones and Gems
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Only a few mutilated stone sculptures of the Mature Indus civilization have survived. Most of them are made of steatite, limestone or alabaster, which are soft materials. The outstanding pieces are the 19 cm height head with bearded face and shoulders (made of limestone) from the DK area at Mohenjo-Daro, and two small figures from Harappa. The Mohenjo-Daro fragment is that of a male priest, the like of which has been found in the limestone fragments from Mundigak. There are indications that inlays were used for decoration and for the eyes.
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A Harappan masterpiece is a tiny 9.3 cm nude male torso of red sandstone, with a pendulous belly, exhibiting in the words of Sir John Marshall, ‘refined and wonderfully truthful modelling of the fleshy parts’. The two tubular drill holes on the front of the shoulders may have been intended to take an inlay. The second Harappan figure of similar size is made of a grey stone. It is a nude dancing figure, also male, with twisting shoulders and one raised leg. Marshall proposed its similarity with the much later icon of Śiva as Naṭarāja. We would refer to the famous cast bronze dancing girl from Mohenjo-Daro and the Dāimābād bronzes at a later stage in this chapter.
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The wide varieties of stones and beads used as art objects in the Harappan and Post-Harappan chalcolithic cultures have been mentioned in the chapters 3-9. We have discussed the uses of hard and soft stones for the Taxilian art objects in chapter 14. Gems of a large variety have been processed, used and exported from the sub-continent; exhaustive references are to be found in the chapters 15, 16 in Vol. I and in the chapter 7 on Ratnaśāstra in Vol. II of this monograph.
The Buddhist Relic Caskets
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One of the earliest assortments of art objects related to the historical period has been excavated along with the Buddhist relic caskets from Piprahwa, district Basti, Uttar Pradesh. (Bhattacharyya, 1986-87; Ghosh, 1989, Vol. 1: 271-73) Within a sandstone coffer (1.33 m by 65 cm by 63 cm height) were found a number of steatite vases, some inscribed, indicating that the relics were those of Buddha himself. There were a loṭā-shaped steatite vessel and also an exquisitely polished crystal casket, 11.5 cm in maximum diameter and 10.5 cm height. The handle of the latter was in the shape of a hollow fish stuffed with seven gold bands having gold granulated six-petalled flowers and gold circular frames attached to them and several tiny beads in paste.
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Some wooden and silver vessels contained gold leaves impressed with swastikā, triratna, female figures, figures of lion and elephant, a gold disc impressed with profusely connected spiral of copper wire, perhaps a ring, a carnelian bird, a malachite bird, semi-precious stones, and charred bones, probably the relics of Gautama Buddha. The caskets dated to fifth-fourth centuries BC and their contents bespeak of the artistic splendour of ancient India of a pre-Aśokan date.
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The second century BC site of Bhattiprolu (16º 6' N, 80º 47' E) near Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, has yielded several stone receptacles containing 164 gold flowers, rolled inscribed strip of silver, 24 silver coins, beads, pearls, crystal casket, beryl reliquary and bone of Buddha.
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In our chapter 14 on Taxila we have discussed the early use of four varieties of sandstone. The Chunar variety was used for the world-famous Aśokan pillars. The beautifully chiselled pillars and the inscribed messages remain as living specimens of art and wisdom. The Aśokan *vajrāsana* at Bodh-Gayā is a polished sandstone throne. Attributed to Aśoka are the *stūpas* at Sārnāth and Taxila. In the former was found a sandstone box containing a green marble relic casket with bones, decayed pearls and gold leaves. The latter (*Dharmarājika stūpa* at Taxila) yielded a steatite vase containing a gold casket, bone relic, three gold safety-pins, and beads of ruby, garnet, amethyst and crystal. (Ghosh, 1989, Vol. I: 270) In a small Buddhist chapel close to the *Dharmarājika stūpa* of Taxila was found a vase-shaped casket of grey micaceous schist with a silver vase inside. In the latter an inscribed scroll of silver and a small gold casket containing some minute bone pieces were found. The inscription in the Kharosthī character and dated AD 78 tells us that the relics were of Gautama Buddha. (Bhattacharyya, 1986-87: 44) The Peshawar *stūpa* built by Kaniṣka yielded an inscribed metal casket containing a hexagonal crystal reliquary holding three pieces of bones believed to be those of Buddha.
Historical Period Art-Works and Stones
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The above examples illustrate the art traditions and the choice of materials during the centuries immediately following the demise of Gautama Buddha. The traditions went on without any break or interruption. The author of this monograph had the opportunity of visiting a beautiful display of ancient Indian art objects in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston during June 1990. The collection was chronological and emphasized specific materials used for the artefacts. Some of the exhibited items are recorded in Table 20.1. The tabulated data illustrate how different materials terracotta, sandstone, marble, schist, schistose marble, ivory, metal alloys (to be discussed later in detail), soapstone, jade etc. were used in India in different epochs and locations to produce diverse artefacts and works of art.
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One should particularly note the definite Hellenistic influences, found in the Kuṣāṇa and Mathurā art, introducing brilliant sculptures and facial expressions on stone and metal. The exquisite ivory carvings from Begram, Afghanistan (now in Musee Guimet, Paris) resemble in style the Kuṣāṇa sculpture from Mathurā and the Amarāvatī sculptures of the first-second centuries AD for obvious reasons: expansion of the Kuṣāṇa empire and the cultural contact with the Sātavāhana empire through Buddhism. While Begram specialised in ivory, and Mathurā artisans preferred sandstone, there was the dark-mauve sandstone at Bharhut, and we have the master pieces from second century AD Amarāvatī (Adoration of the Buddha’s Alms Bowl) and from third century AD Nāgārjunakoṇḍa (The Nativity and Seven Steps) made in the pale-greenish limestone of Palnad. The medium differed but there was a homogeneity of artistic styles across Greater India. We find similar moonstone doorsteps in Amarāvatī, Nāgārjunakoṇḍa and Anuradhapura at Sri Lanka. The colossal Buddha in Bamiyan, Afghanistan was carved out of a sandstone cliff around fourth-fifth centuries AD and this was reported by Hiuen-Tsang. The Kuṣāṇa bronze tradition was quickly disseminated in the Early Gupta Period.
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Table 20.1
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A Sample of Chronological Collections of Art Objects from Ancient India
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(Boston Museum of Fine Arts)
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| Date | Item | Material |
| 3rd century BC | Standing Mother Goddess with big ear-ring and hair-dress | Low fired grey terracotta |
| 2nd century BC | Standing female figure, Peshawar, hand-modelled, mother cult, hair-dress, cāndmālā. | Fine terracotta |
| 120 BC | Torso of fertility goddess Yakṣī | Sandstone |
| 25 BC | Yakṣī | Grey sandstone |
| 1st century BC | Goddess with three fishes | Terracotta covered with pigment |
| - do - | Gajalakṣmī | Terracotta |
| 1st century AD | Different forms of sitting Buddha | Red sandstone |
| AD 50 | Birth of the Buddha — Amarāvatī | Pinkish schistose marble |
| 2nd century AD | Makara goddess — Mathurā | Red sandstone |
| 2nd century AD | Buddha as a mendicant monk. Gāndhāra style | Grey schist |
| 2nd century AD | Mother goddess with child, Double molded | Terracotta |
| 2nd century AD | Bodhisattva | Grey schist |
| 2nd century AD | Worship of the Bodhi tree; Representative of a Stūpa; Temptation of the Buddha, Amarāvatī | Grey and white schistose marble |
| 2nd century AD | Worship of the wheel, Dharma Cakra | Schistose marble |
| 2nd-3rd century AD | Parinirvāṇa of the Buddha — Pakistan | Grey schist |
| 5th century AD | Gaṅgā Devi on crocodile; Makaravāhinī; Besnagar | Sandstone |
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| Date | Item | Material |
| 8th century AD | Ivory Buddha from Kashmir, then a flourishing centre of ivory-carving | Ivory |
| 10th century AD | Bodhisattva of compassion — Bihar | Grey schist |
| 10th century AD | Lotus, bearing Buddha — Bengal | Black schist |
| 10th-11th century AD | Buddha, Mahavira, Viṣṇu | Bronze and brass |
| 10th-11th century AD | Model of Mahabodhi temple. Small models used to be brought home by pilgrims as souvenirs. | Soapstone |
| Mughal Period | Handles of steel sword | Jade (greyish green) |
| | Bowl | Jade (White) |
| | Spoon | Jade (green) |
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There are some specific publications on potteries authored by B.P. Sinha (1969), Vibha Tripathi (1976), T.N. Roy (1986), A. Ghosh (1989: Vol. I, Section 11 on potteries including ceramics). Many items are of great artistic interest. However not much scientific work has been done. We have mentioned some exceptional scientific work on NBPW pottery and the slip glaze on it in chapter 11. There are specific writings on terracotta art. (P.L. Gupta, 1972; A. Ghosh, 1989: Vol. I, Section 17)
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Archaeological excavations have yielded many pre-historic and proto-historic brick structures which are of great artistic value and archaeological interest. Although several authors (Chattopadhyaya, D, 1986; Ghosh, A, 1973 and 1989: Vol. I, pp. 294-95) have discussed different aspects of the brick structures in ancient india, much more scientific work remains to be done. It is also necessary to analyse the ancient rectangular tiles made of gritty clay mixed with straw. (Ghosh, 1989: Vol. I, p. 296)