Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c28.s3: Metal-Alloy Systems
Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c28.s3
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Metal-Alloy Systems
v1.c28.s3.1
We would now discuss the use of metals and alloys in the ancient Indian works of art. Four varieties of metal were discovered in Mohenjo-Daro: (1) crude copper lumps, with considerable amount of residual sulphur, (2) refined copper, (3) 2-5 per cent arsenic alloy of copper, (4) bronze containing as much as 13 per cent tin. Analysis of 200 Harappan artefacts showed (D.P. Agrawal, 1982: 235-36) that only 23 per cent were alloyed with tin, 12 per cent with arsenic, and 8 per cent with lead. Evidently it was a copper-bronze culture. The Harappan smiths used higher percentages of tin in the bronze for making bangles (11.82 %), and pins (13.83 %) than in producing tools such as spear (2.27 %). Silver, gold and light yellow electrum constituted a separate series of art or ornament constituents.
v1.c28.s3.2
Silver was more common than gold in the Mature Indus civilization. Vessels and other utensils made of silver resembled those of copper. Among examples of finer workmanship is a silver buckle from Harappa, with soldered scroll pattern of gold wire and gold-capped beads, and a boss of silver inlaid with conch-shell. (Allchins, 1983: 195)
v1.c28.s3.3
Materials in Some Indian Mural Paintings
v1.c28.s3.4
| Sl. No. | Site and period | Carrier and Plaster | Ground | Pigments | Medium |
| 1. | Ajaṇṭā murals 2nd century BC-6th century AD | Ferruginous earth mixed with sand, organic fibrous material on basalt | Lime, Kaolin and gypsum | Lime, Kaolin and gypsum (white); yellow ochre; yellow ochre; lamp black; terre verte (green) | Organic binding medium |
| 2. | Rock-cut temples of Bādāmi 6th-7th century AD | Rough plaster on sandstone wall | No fine plaster | Yellow and red ochres; terre verte; carbon; lime | Glue |
| 3. | Bāgh caves; early 7th century AD | Red ferruginous earth; lime sand | Over the rough plaster, a fine layer of lime and gypsum | As above; also lapis lazuli (blue) | Glue |
| 4. | Cave temples at Sittan-avasal 7th century AD | 2.5 mm thick lime-sand plaster | 0.5 mm thick lime-wash on rough plaster | Lime, wood charcoal, lamp black, yellow and red ochre, ultramarine (blue) terre verte (green) | Lime |
| 5. | Wall paintings at Kanjivaram, 8th to 9th century AD | Similar | Similar | Similar | Similar |
| 6. | Bṛhadeśvara Temple Tanjore, Cola Period 11th-12th century AD | 2.6 mm hard lime plaster on stone wall | Lime | Similar | Fresco Buono; No medium |
v1.c28.s3.5
The cast bronzes in the Harappan civilization came mainly from Mohenjo-Daro. The most significant specimen of international repute is the little figure of a dancing girl about 11 cm in height. “The dancing girl in bronze from Mohenjo-Daro is a very delicate representation in the round of a female nude; the ease of her stance, the graceful way of resting one hand on the hip, and the slight tilt of the head enhance her voluptuous appeal”. (D.P. Agrawal, 1982: 216-18)
v1.c28.s3.6
A second figure of comparable size also comes from Mohenjo-Daro; there were a fine buffalo and a ram cast in bronze. The little models of bullock-carts and ikkās from Chanhu-Daro and Harappa are interesting examples of the skill in casting. (Allchins, 1983: 206) No Harappan mould for casting has been discovered so far.
v1.c28.s3.7
D.P. Agrawal (1982: 234-35) recorded that the Harappans made the vessels in two parts, the bottom and the top, and then joined them. For vessel fabrication they used sinking, raising and lapping, and for joining metal, running on and rivetting techniques. Soldering was used only for noble metals. Metallographic examination showed that the Harappans resorted to open and closed casting, slow cooling of casting, annealing, and cold work. Small animal and female figurines were cast by the cire perdue or lost wax process.
v1.c28.s3.8
In our chapter 8 on the chalcolithic cultures of peninsular India, we discussed the cache of four solid bronze figures excavated at Dāimābād. Made of low arsenic alloy, the four pieces, namely an exquisite chariot pulled by a pair of bull-horse ‘unicorn’s’ an elephant, a rhinoceros and a buffalo corresponded to the Late-Harappan Period (2000-1800 BC). The wheeled bronzes must have played an important role in the religious life of the people, serving as vāhanas of deities. The tradition persisted, and we find from the Jorwe level at Dāimābād a terracotta cylinder seal depicting a procession, and a unique terracotta, covered by a coat of red ochre, showing the figure of a deified sage and three consorts united with him.
v1.c28.s3.9
In the chapters 5-9 we have mentioned the beads and artefacts made of stone, terracotta, metals and alloys in the Post-Harappan cultures of the different parts of India prior to the Historical Period. The chalcolithic culture in South India persisted and produced many metallic artefacts. Large quantities of ornamental bronze articles have been found at the fourth-third century BC burial sites at Tinnevelly in Tamil Nadu. The bronze articles, found with numerous iron implements, include ornamental vase-stands, jars and cups of different patterns with ornamental bowl lids, besides bronze bangles, necklaces, ear-ornaments and diadems. Circular tubes, a number of sieve cups and perforated strainers for straining rice were also recovered. (Annual Report, Archaeological Survey of India, 1902-03; Ray, 1956: 94)
v1.c28.s3.10
In the chapter 14 we have discussed the artefacts made at Taxila over a period of ten centuries (five before the birth of Christ). Many ornaments, toilet articles, surgical instruments, spatula, household vessels, cooking pots, jars etc. were made of copper, bronze and brass. Copper and bronze moulds or dies were used for the fabrication of gold and silver ornaments. The art of granulation and filigree, as well as that of incrusting jewellery with gems, were known to the metal-workers of Taxila in the first century AD.