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Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c28.s4: Literary References to Metals, Alloys and Their Casting

Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c28.s4

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English

Literary References to Metals, Alloys and Their Casting

v1.c28.s4.1

As we enter the Historical Period, we find plenty of literary references to the use of metals and alloys in the works of art, and these would be reviewed in several chapters of our Vol. II. Following the references to copper and tin in the Vedic literatures, we find specific mentioning of bronze or *kāmsya* in Pāṇini’s *Aṣṭādhyāyī*, and of brass or *ārakūṭa* in Kautilya’s *Arthaśāstra* (2.12.23). The latter prescribed alloying of gold and silver with copper, iron, tin, lead and antimony (2.12.24; 2.13.44-56) in specific proportions to make particular coins and ornaments. Specific recipes were suggested e.g., 2 parts of silver and 1 part of copper to make *tripūṭaka*. Later, bell-metal was prescribed to contain eight parts of copper and two parts of tin.

v1.c28.s4.2

The *Rasaśāstra* texts recommended *vartalauha* or alloy of five metals: *kāmsya*, *ārakūṭa* or *riti*, copper, iron and lead. Although Madanapāla designated zinc metal as *yaśada* in AD 1374 (Ray, P.C., 1903, Vol. I: 156 ff), and Bhāvamiśra’s *Bhāvaprakāśa Pūrva Khaṇḍa* (Sastri, 1955), declaring brass as an alloy of copper and zinc, was written during Emperor Akbar’s time in the sixteenth century AD, the use of brass in India had started in the pre-Christian era and the knowledge of distilled zinc as a ‘metal like tin’ was almost that early.

v1.c28.s4.3

Both solid- and hollow-casting by the lost wax process have a long history in Northern India. (Lo Bue, 1981b: 69) According to Reeves (1962: 29), the earliest literary evidence for the process is the description contained in the *Madhūcchiṣṭavidhāna* (Bee’s wax process for casting), as recorded in chapter 68 of the *Mānasāra* which is believed to have been compiled in the Gupta period (Shukla, 1958, II: 108); this description is however brief. The *Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa* (Shah, Priyabala, 1958), containing descriptions of both hollow- and solid-casting by the *cire perdue* method, is claimed by some to belong to fourth-fifth century AD. This text is well-known in Nepal. (Pal, 1970: 13) In his *Kāmasūtra*, Vātsyāyana included *dhātuvāda* (metal-working) in the list of 64 *kalās*. Varāhamihira’s (505 AD) *Bṛhat Saṃhitā* has the last chapter (No. 57) on *vajralepa* or adamantine glue, vegetable gums and exudation products used in cementing the idols. For metallic icons, a popular cement consisted of eight parts of lead, two of bell metal and one of ritikā possibly calx of brass. (BS, 57.8)

v1.c28.s4.4

The best medieval description which gives detailed instructions for metal-casting is contained in the Abhilāṣitārtha Cintāmaṇi, also known as Mānasollāsa. This was written in AD 1131 by king Someśvara Bhūlokamalla of the Cālukya dynasty of the Karnataka area. The verses on the lost-wax process, as translated by Saraswati (1936: 143), specify the various details.

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According to Mānasollāsa, a wax image is first made and then fine clay coating is applied three times. The clay coating should contain well-ground charred husk, finely shredded cotton and a little powdered salt. The wax is melted out, and then the molten metal is poured in the moulds. The image is removed on cooling after breaking the clay mould, and then carefully finished. The text also provided a fairly good information regarding the techniques of modelling, moulding, dewaxing and baking the mould along with the description of the solid casting process. It has also described the methods for calculating the amounts of particular metals required for casting as proportions to the weight of the wax in the model (brass and copper 10 times, silver 12 times and gold 16 times that of wax, reflecting their densities), the temperature required for melting different metals, the melting process, casting and finishing etc. (Bose, D.M. et al., 1971: 339-40; Swarnakamal, 1980: 28-29)

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In ancient India, hollow-casting had reached a degree of perfection which enabled sculptors to attempt very large images, for which the Repoussé technique is otherwise generally preferred. The 2.225 m high Sultanganj copper Buddha (in Birmingham City Museum) was cast in more than one piece by the hollow-casting method, and it is very likely that the 1.86 m high Devsar brass backplate (in Srinagar Museum, Kashmir) was cast by the same method. (Lo Bue, 1981b: 69)

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