Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c29.s5: References

Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c29.s5

Language: English

References

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Agrawal, D.P., 1984, *The Archaeology of India*, Select Book Service Syndicate, New Delhi.

Agrawal, D.P., and Chakrabarti, D.K., 1979, “Archaeology in India — A Professional Assessment”, In *Essays in Indian Protohistory*, edited by D.P. Agrawal and D.K. Chakrabarti, B.R. Publishing Corporation, Delhi, pp. 388-92.

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Allchin, Bridget and Raymond, 1983, *The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan*, Select Book Service Syndicate, New Delhi.

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Bhoraskar, V.N., Mahajan, S.Y., Jayanthakumar, S.S., and Gogate, V.D., 1985, “Analysis of Ancient Iron Objects with 14 MeV Neutron Activation Analysis”, In *Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, Letters*, 1985, 95, 2, pp. 73-80.

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Biswas, A.K., 1989, “Chemistry in Mineral Processing”, In *Frontiers in Applied Chemistry*, edited by A.K. Biswas, Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi and Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 11-52.

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——, 1990, “The Aryan Myth”, In *Historical Archaeology of India*, edited by Amita Ray and Samir Mukherjee, Books and Books, New Delhi, pp. 29-47.

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Biswas, A.K., Gangopadhyaya, A. and Ramachandran, T.R., 1984, “Phase Studies on Zinc Residues of Ancient Indian Origin”, In *Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals*, Vol. 37, No. 3, June 1984, pp. 234-41.

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Craddock, P.T., 1981, “The Copper Alloys of Tibet and their Background”, In *Aspects of Tibetan Metallurgy* edited by Z.A. Oddy and W. Zwalf, Occasional Paper No. 15, British Museum, pp. 1-31.

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——, 1985, “Three Thousand Years of Copper Alloys: From the Bronze Age to the Industrial Revolution”, In Applications of Science in Examination of Works of Art, edited by P.A. England and L.V. Zelst, Boston Museum of Fine Arts, pp. 59-67.

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Freestone, I.C. and Middleton, A.P., 1987, “Mineralogical Applications of the Analytical SEM in Archaeology”, In Mineralogical Magazine, March 1987, 51, pp. 21-31.

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Gale, N.H. and Stos-Gale, Z.A., 1982, “Bronze Age Copper Sources in the Mediterranean, A New Approach”, In Science 216, pp. 11-19.

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Ganguly, D.K., 1990, “Some Disquieting Features of Indian Archaeology”, In Historical Archaeology of India, edited by Amita Ray and Samir Mukherjee, Books and Books, New Delhi, pp. 349-68.

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Gupta, P.L., 1987-88, “Numismatics and Archaeology”, In Purātattva, 18, pp. 85-88.

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Iyer, R.K., Rao, N.J., Krishnamoorthy, K.R., Sankar Das, M., and Paramasivan, S., 1973, “Study of Trace Element Distribution in Indian Potsherds by Neutron Activation Analysis”, In Radiocarbon and Indian Archaeology, edited by D.P. Agrawal and A. Ghosh, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bombay, pp. 406-18.

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Lahiri, A.N., 1990, “What the Numismatist Expects from Archaeologists”, In Historical Archaeology of India, edited by Amita Ray and Samir Mukherjee, Books and Books, New Delhi, pp. 209-15.

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Lal, B.B., 1953, “Archaeological Chemistry and Scientific Studies”, In Ancient India, 9, pp. 199-206.

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Mehta, R.N., 1990, “History and Archaeology: A Perspective of Western India”, In Historical Archaeology of India, edited by Amita Ray and Samir Mukherjee, Books and Books, New Delhi, pp. 91-99.

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Nieuwenhuysen, P. and Adams, F., 1984, “Elemental Analysis of Himalayan Metal Statues”, In Historical Metallurgy, 18, 2, pp. 105-08.

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Rai, S., Rajan, N. and Singh, M., 1985, “Some Aspects of Iron Age in Ancient India: An Archaeo-Technological Study”, In Bulletin of the Metals Museum of the Japan Institute of Metals, 10, pp. 35-39.

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Rai, S., and Roy, T.N., 1981-82, “Mossbauer Studies of Black Slipped and Northern Black Polished Wares”, In Purātattva, 12, pp. 165-66.

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Raj, Baldev and Sundaram, C.V., 1990, Ancient Indian Metallurgical Accomplishments, Souvenir on 28th National Metallurgists’ Day and International Symposium, Tiruchirapalli, The Indian Institute of Metals, November 1990, pp. 21-28.

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Sharma, R.S., 1990, “Keynote Address”, In Historical Archaeology of India, edited by Amita Ray and Samir Mukherjee, Books and Books, New Delhi, pp. 1-11.

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Tylecote, R.F., Ghaznavi, H.G. and Boydell, P.J., 1977, “Partitioning of Trace Elements during the Smelting of Copper”, In Journal of Archaeological Science, 4, pp. 305-33.

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Ill. 1.1 Four steatite seals from Mohenjo-Daro. One has tree divinity, devotee, sacrificial bull and seven sages (saptarṣi). The other is Paśupati in Yoga posture.

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Ill. 1.2 (Left) jewels from Harappa. Necklace of gold, semiprecious stones and vitreous paste. Gold bracelet. Double-coil ornament. Setting of the red cone-shaped stone with the central hinge. (Right) series of pierced pieces for jewellery of jade, semi-precious stones, terracotta, thin enamel (with trefoil motif) and bronze. Mohenjo-Daro.

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Ill. 1.3 Male torso from Harappa of red sandstone.

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Ill. 1.4 Male bust of calcareous marble (or of steatite or limestone or alabaster?), Mohenjo-Daro. King-priest, cloak covered with sacred trefoils. Elongated face and stylized beard.

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Ill. 1.5 Dancing Girl. Mohenjo-Daro. Thick-lipped, snub-nosed aboriginal from Southern Baluchistan with bangles, armlet and stringed necklace with three cowrie shell pendants. Bronze statuette cast by the cire perdue method.

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Ill. 1.6 Dancing Girl. Mohenjo-Daro. back side of Ill.1.5

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Ill. 1.7 Lothal. Copper and bronze bangles, rings and spacer beads.

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Ill. 1.8 Lothal. Necklace of micro-beads of gold.

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Ill. 1.9 Lothal. Beads of semi-precious stones, agate, carnelian, steatite and faience.

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Ill. 1.10 Brass Object part of a chariot in submerged Dwarka circa 1500 BC. Analyses Cu 73.71%, Zn 10.68, Pb 1.32, Fe 0.43. Dwarka, Lothal and Atrañjikhera show earliest brass in India.

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Ill. 1.11 Chariot. Daimābād. Bronze. The animals in the chariot look like bull-horses or unicorns. The chariot has two solid wheels moving along with the axle driven by a Proto-Australoid man (priest?).

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Ill. 1.12 Rhinoceros. Daimābād Bronze. Standing on two horizontal bars over two sets of wheels. Mouth is longish resembling the snout of a boar.

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Ill. 1.13 Typical copper objects from the Mature-Harappan levels of Kālībaṅgan.

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Ill. 1.14 Copper Hoard Implements. Chisels, Harpoons, Swords, etc. from Gaṅgā-Yamunā Doab.

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Ill. 1.15 The Lion Capital of Sārnāth. Polished Sandstone. Aśoka’s Reign. Ca 272-232 BC.

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Ill. 1.16 Yakṣī and Yakṣa from Bharhut second century BC. Sandstone railing.

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Ill. 1.17 Gems from Taxila, 1945 hoard. 1-3: gold ornaments. 4: amethyst bead. 5: crystal bead.

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Ill. 1.18 Silver bent-bar coins from the Bhir Mound, Taxila. 1945 hoard.

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Ill. 1.19 Gold Beads from Taxila, Bhir Mound, 1945 hoard.

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Ill. 1.20 Prince with a bow. (Front and Back). Nāgārjunakoṇḍā. Ikṣvāku Period. Third century AD. Suggestive of the Sātavāhana prince, a ‘friend’ of Nāgārjuna, the first commentator on distilled zinc and brass.

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Ill. 1.21 Dharmacakra. Chausa. Kuṣāṇa period, second century AD, Dharmacakra or the Buddhist triune or triratna concept of religious doctrine, law and order. The wheel has sixteen spokes with a plain felly and supported by two crocodiles with Śalabhañjikās or female nature spirits in their jaws. Cast bronze.

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Ill. 1.22 Fourth and fifth century AD Gupta Era gold coins showing horse-sacrifice, the king hunting, reclining, under an umbrella, with battle axe, playing the lyre, riding an elephant and hunting a lion, riding a horse and hunting a rhinoceros. The last four depict goddesses: Lakṣmī with cornucopia, with a dancing peacock and Gaṅgā on the crocodile.

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Ill. 1.23 Zawarmala Mine. Double arches made by fire-setting. The lower set is of later origin resulting from retreat working.

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Ills. 1.24, 1.25 The Delhi Iron Pillar (early 5th century AD) installed by Candragupta Vikramāditya II, as per the Sanskrit inscription on the body. The corrosion-resistance of the forge-welded wrought iron structure is partly due to its composition (low C and Mn, high P).

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Ill. 1.26 Copper Refining Furnace at Khetri

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Ill. 1.27 Ewer, A Bidriware, inlaid with silver and brass, inscribed on the rim. The base metal is high-zinc-low-copper alloy. The black patina is due to KNO₃ — oxidation of copper-rich phase. The design is cut out of sheet silver with brass wire being used to indicate details. The inscription suggests that the ewer was made for Timur in 1406 or 1407.

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Ill. 1.28 Huqqa base, a Bidriware inlaid with silver and brass. Second half of 17th century. Silver has been used for the flowers and brass for the leaves and stems.

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Ill. 1.29 Vṛntāka-Mūṣā, brinjal-like Zinc (ore) reduction-distillation crucible from Zawar. Slag in broken Zinc distillation retorts.

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Ill. 1.30 The upper part of Gupta Period Jivantasvāmi. Composition Cu 73.4%, Sn 5.5%, Zn 3.6%, Pb 9.8%, Fe 4.9%. Metallography shows lead at the grain boundary. The attractive image has triple-folded neck, the broad shoulders, the armlet and its beaded band, circular ornamental Gavākṣa motif, circular Tilaka mark on the forehead, broad necklace, inlaid eyes, the ringlets of hair on the shoulders, the four-sided tall crown marked by caitya window ornament in front.

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Ill. 1.31 Yakṣī Ambikā, From Akoṭa. Maitraka, sixth century AD. Analysis : copper 76.7%, Sn 1.6%, Zn 16.3%, Pb 4.0%.

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Ill. 1.32 Tritīrtha image of Pārśvanātha. From Akoṭa, Maitraka, 7th century AD. Analysis : copper 80.8%., Sn 5.3%, Zn 7.4%, Pb 2.2% and Fe 1.0%.

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Ill. 1.33 Fly-whisk bearer (camaradharini). Fr om Akoṭa. Maitraka, seventh century AD. Analysis: copper 73.2%, Sn 2.2%, Zn 10.7%, Pb 11.3% and Fe 1.4%. Metallography reveals lead precipitation, annealing below the recrystallisation temperature and heavy cold working.

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Ill. 1.34 Tritīrthika of Pārśvanātha. Akoṭa. Early Solaṅki period circa 950 AD. An inscription on the back tells us that this brass image was installed by one Regata in c. 900 AD and his mother, Mālā whose images are placed on a lower level on the pedestal.

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Ill. 1.35 Buddha. Uttar Pradesh, Gilt, 6th century AD.

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Ill. 1.36 Avalokiteśvara. Nālandā, Gilt, 9th century AD. Devapāla Period.

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Ill. 1.37 Tārā. Kurkihar. Devapāla period (825-830 AD). Tārā is the embodiment of Divine Grace and the feminine counterpart of the Bodhisattva. This is one of the masterpieces amongst the eastern Indian bronzes, well-known for its sheer grace and elegance.

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Ill. 1.38 Bodhisattva Loknātha. Kurkihar. Rāmapāla period (1072-1125 AD). Lotus-bedecked bejewelled gilt image. A girdle with pearl festoons in the waist, a necklace bracelet, arm-bands with a lion-face ornament and a beaded sacred thread.

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Ill. 1.39 Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara with Goddesses. Kashmir 980-1003 AD. Bronze. Represents the flourishing period of Tāntric religion.

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Ill. 1.40 Mañjuśrī. Western Tibet. While the body of the deity assays 65.5%. Cu, 30.4C% Zn and only 0.25% As, the lion assays 76% Cu, 13.9% Zn and 6.80% As. The base 90.1% Cu, 0.4% Zn and 7.40% As; the surface contains even higher percentage of As (14.0%) on account of inverse seggregation and renders ‘silvery’ whiteness to the base supporting a ‘golden’ statue.

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Ill. 1.41 Yaśodā and Kṛṣṇa. Karnataka; Vijayanagar period; circa 14th century; copper.

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Ill. 1.42 Lakṣaṇā Devī. Brahmaur, situated in the Chamba area (south of Kashmir), valley of the Buddhal, a tributary of the Ravi. Dated 700-750 AD. It reminds us of Mahiṣāsurmardinī, a concept which developed during the post-Greek Kuṣāṇa period. The ornaments indicate different traditions mingling into a martial spirit in the Western Himalayas.