Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v2.c37: Abbreviations

Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v2.c37

Language: English

Abbreviations

v2.c37.1

| *Ait. Brā.* | — | *Aitareya Brāhmaṇa* |
| *AK* | — | *Amarakośa* |
| *AM* | — | *Agastimata* |
| *ARR* | — | *Agastiya Ratnaparīkṣā* |
| *AS* | — | *Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra* |
| *ASHR* | — | *Aṣṭāṅgahṛdaya* |
| *Āsval. ŚS* | — | *Āsvalāyana Śrautrasūtra* |
| *AV* | — | *Atharva Veda* |
| *BARC* | — | Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Bombay |
| *B&RW* | — | Blue and Red Ware |
| *Bṛ.Saṃ.* | — | *Bṛhat Saṃhitā* |
| *B.Up.* | — | *Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad* |
| *Chā. Up.* | — | *Chāndogya Upaniṣad* |
| *DKM* | — | *Dhātukriyā* or *Dhātumañjarī* |
| *DRN* | — | *Dhāturatnamālā* |
| *DV* | — | *Dhātuvāda* |
| *GP* | — | *Garuḍa Purāṇa* |
| *Jai. Brā.* | — | *Jaiminīya Brāhmaṇa* |
| *Jai. Brā. Up.* | — | *Jaiminīya Brāhmaṇa Upaniṣad* |
| *K. Y. V* | — | *Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda* |
| *Kā. ŚS* | — | *Kātyāyana Śrauta Sūtra* |
| *Kā. Saṃ.* | — | *Kaṭhaka Saṃhitā* |

v2.c37.2

| *Katha Up.* | — | *Katha Upaniṣad* |
| *Kau. Brā.* | — | *Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇa* |
| *Kau. S.* | — | *Kausīka Sūtra* |
| *LRP* | — | *Laghu Ratna Parīkṣā* |
| *Mait. Sam.* | — | *Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā* |
| *Mait.Up.* | — | *Maitrāyaṇī Upaniṣad* |
| *Manu* | — | *Manu Smṛti* |
| *MCK* | — | E.J.H. Mackay’s *Further Excavations at Mohenjo-daro* (Vol. 1) |
| *ML* | — | *Mānasollāsa* |
| *MM* | — | *Maṇimālā* |
| *MS-I* | — | J. Marshall’s *Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilizations* (Vol. I) |
| *MS-II* | — | J. Marshall’s *Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilizations* (Vol. II) |
| *MSV* | — | Madho Sarup Vats’ *Excavation at Harappa* (Vol. 1) |
| *NBPW* | — | Northern Black Polished Ware |
| *Nir.* | — | *Nirukta* |
| *NRP* | — | *Navaratnaparīkṣā* |
| *OCP* | — | Ochre Coloured Pottery |
| *Pam. Vi. Brā.* | — | *Pañca Viṃsa Brāhmaṇa* or *Tāṇḍya Brāhmaṇa* |
| *Pāṇ.* | — | *Pāṇini’s Aṣṭādhyāyī* |
| *PGW* | — | Painted Grey Ware |
| *RASASA* | — | *Rasendra-Sāra-Saṃgraha* |
| *RCD* | — | *Rasendracūḍāmaṇi* |
| *RCM* | — | *Rasacintāmaṇi* |
| *RCT* | — | *Rasendra-Cintāmaṇi* |
| *RHR* | — | *Rasahṛdaya* |
| *RJL* | — | *Rasajalalakṣmī* |

v2.c37.3

| *RKP* | — | *Rasakalpa* |
| *RN* | — | *Rājanighaṇṭu* |
| *RNM* | — | *Rasanakṣatramālikā* |
| *RNVK* | — | *Rasārṇavakalpa* |
| *RNV* | — | *Rasārṇava* |
| *RP* | — | *Ratnaparīkṣā* |
| *RPS* | — | *Rasaprakāśa Sudhākara* |
| *RR* | — | *Rasa-Ratnākara* |
| *RRS* | — | *Rasaratnasamuccaya* |
| *RS* | — | *Ratnasaṃgraha* |
| *RV* | — | *Ṛgveda* |
| *RYP* | — | *Rayaṇaparikkhā* |
| *RYT* | — | *Rudrayamala Tantra* |
| *Ś. Brā.* | — | *Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa* |
| *SP* | — | *Skanda Purāṇa* |
| *SSRS* | — | *Sarveśvararasāyana* |
| *ST* | — | *Suvarṇatantra or Svarṇatantra* |
| *Ś Y V* | — | *Śukla Yajurveda* |
| *S. Vi. Brā.* | — | *Saḍa Viṃśa Brāhmaṇa* |
| *Sāṅkh. Ā* | — | *Sāṅkhyāyana Āraṇyaka* |
| *Sāṅkh. ŚS* | — | *Sāṅkhyāyana Śrautasūtra* |
| *Tait. Ā* | — | *Taittirīya Āraṇyaka* |
| *Tait. Brā.* | — | *Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa* |
| *Tait. Saṃ.* | — | *Taittirīya Saṃhitā (Same as K. YV)* |
| *Vā. Saṃ.* | — | *Vājasaneyi Saṃhitā* |

v2.c37.4

THIS volume seeks to record ancient India’s long acquaintance and sustained expertise in the fields of gems, non-gem minerals, metals and alloys, as revealed from the Vedic and Sanskrit literature. The period from the Rgveda to the Rasaratnasamuccaya (RRS) covers nearly three millennia. Traditionally, the ‘ancient’ period in India is said to have ended around AD 1200 with the firm grip of the Muslims over this sub-continent. Our narrative however includes RRS, an early fourteenth century AD treatise, since it provides a comprehensive review of the earlier Sanskrit literatures and the state-of-the art in the field of our interest. We have also given references to some Pāli and Prākṛt texts, to substantiate our findings.

v2.c37.5

A major problem about the literary sources, specially in terms of their correlation with the archaeological data, is concerned with their dates. The problem is specially acute with the Rgveda; we cannot accept Max Müller’s proposition of 1200 BC as the date of the Rgveda, since this is the accepted date of the Mahābhārata-famed archaeological site of Hastināpura. The events of the Sarasvati river valley, as described in the Rgveda, must have taken place in the third millennium BC, witnessing a fully grown Harappan civilization. This point shall be elaborated later. We also have controversies regarding the dates of Pāṇini, Kauṭilya, Nāgārjuna, etc., on which we would submit our considered opinions.

v2.c37.6

The writings on minerals and metals in the Sanskrit literature are surprisingly scanty and scattered. These have been often peripheral to other topics of interest such as philosophy, theology, poetry and history as in the Vedic literatures, and later grammar, political economy, prognostication, astrology, medicine and alchemy, etc. Fortunately, the writers and compilers of the above topics had some interest in gems, non-gem minerals, metals, alloys, etc. and thus we have been benefited from their treatises.

v2.c37.7

Another fact that stands out is that the references to minerals and metals appeared much after the actual uses had already been made. This was partly because, as we have explained, the writers were primarily interested in subjects other than minerals and metals. Another reason, probably the major one, behind this time-lag was the rigid division of labour and casteism which discouraged fast diffusion of knowledge. The metal-smiths were low-caste people, debarred from studying the Vedas, and the Vedic scholars were often ignorant of metallurgy. The traditional scholars took some interest in astronomy, mathematics and geometry on account of their involvement with the rituals, which were not concerned with smelting, pottery-making, etc. The gap between metallurgy and scholasticism however narrowed somewhat in the Maurya and Gupta eras.

v2.c37.8

We have tried to elucidate the ancient Sanskrit technical terms in the light of our modern scientific knowledge. In several cases, doubts and controversies persist. More research is necessary to fully explain certain terms such as vaikṛntaka, capala, bhīṣma, etc.

v2.c37.9

Chapters 2 and 3 deal with the evidences from the Ṛgveda and other Vedic literatures, respectively. The writings of Pāṇini (chapter 4) and Kauṭilya (chapter 5) throw a flood of light on the ever-increasing use and knowledge of minerals and metals attending the second phase of urbanisation in the ancient India. The data on Mahābhārata (chapter 6) show how the epic was enlarged with metallurgical references inserted during the historical period after 500 BC.

v2.c37.10

One millennium of gemmology studies in India has been reviewed in chapter 7. The studies on medicine were initiated during the age of Atharvaveda, when botanical as well as mineralogical recipes were tried on patients, and their effects studied. From Caraka to Patañjali to Nāgārjuna, the Rasaśāstra was developed in stages which grew to its full stature during the Tāntric period of alchemy (AD 700 to 1300). Around AD 1300 started the iatrochemical period. Some fifteen centuries of progress in Rasaśāstra (reviewed in chapter 8) also reflected India’s continuing involvement in gems, minerals and metals. Chapter 9 presents the highlights of the fourteenth century AD text Rasaratnasamuccaya which gives us almost the last word about ‘ancient’ India’s progress in the field of our study.