Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v2.c41.s7: Precious Metals: Gold, Silver and their Alloys

Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v2.c41.s7

Language: English

Precious Metals: Gold, Silver and their Alloys

v2.c41.s7.1

The Arthaśāstra mentioned specific uses of various metals of which gold and silver received maximum attention.

The duties of suvarṇādhyakṣaḥ, the Superintendent of Gold were defined in section 2.13. He was supposed to establish industrial outfits and employ sauvarṇikas or goldsmiths, well-versed in the knowledge of not only gold and silver, but also of the alloying elements such as copper and iron and of gems which had to be set in the gold and silver wares (2.13.1-2 & 58-59). The Superintendent had to arrange security preventing smuggling, theft (2.13.30-36) and pilferage by the artisans. Various possible methods of pilferage were described (2.14.18-55).

v2.c41.s7.3

The purity of the raw-materials — gold and silver ore, scrap and ornaments for re-use — had to be checked through streak tests on special touchstones (2.13.17-25) and chemical tests such as whitening of gold by vermilion or iron sulphate (2.13.19).

v2.c41.s7.4

Gold-smelting was known as suvarṇapāka (1.18.8). Gold was purified by a process of extraction with molten lead. Gold thus produced was brittle and had to be re-smelted. Thereafter, it was turned into leaves by heating, and made bright with Indus-earth when it became the base of various colours to be imparted through alloying with silver, copper, iron, etc. (2.13.6-9 & 47). Similarly, silver could also be purified using molten lead and then used as such (pure silver suitable for ornament is tāra) or alloyed to produce different colours (2.13.10-14 & 49).

v2.c41.s7.5

Various ornamental alloys could be prepared by mixing variable proportions of iron and copper with gold, silver and śveta tāra or white silver which contained gold, silver and some colouring matter (2.13.50-57). Two parts of silver and one part of copper constituted tripuṭaka. An alloy of equal parts of silver and iron was known as vellaka (2.14.20-22).

v2.c41.s7.6

The range of a goldsmith’s expertise lay in setting, stringing, bead-making, making of solid and hollow objects, plating, coating, fixing and gilding (2.13.37-46; 2.14.17). *ghanam suṣiram saṃyuhyam avalepyaṃ saṃghātyaṃ vāsitakaṃ ca kārukarma* (2.14.17). The main products were *kāncana pṛṣata tvaṣṭr tapaṇīya* (2.13.33) gems set on silver and gold, beads, gold-plates and gold/silver ornaments. Setting is the fixing of gems (*kṣepaṇaḥ kācārpaṇādi* (2.13.38) on gold and silver base. Stringing is weaving in threads (2.13.39). Gold plating (*tvaṣṭrkarma*) could be done on silver or copper (2.13.44-45). Gilding a silver article was done by means of the liquid or powder of sand vermilion (2.13.46).

v2.c41.s7.7

A firm and a removable enclosing (*peṭaka*) was made in cases of plating, coating and fixing. Lead, copper or silver objects were coated with a gold-leaf (*ācitakapatra*) on one side or with a twin-leaf fixed with lac etc. (2.14.26-33). Gold, silver or gems were embedded (*piṅka*) in solid or hollow articles by pasting a thick pulp (of gold, silver or gem particles and the cementing agents such as lac, vermilion, red lead) on the object and then heating (2.14.34-42).

v2.c41.s7.8

The qualities of ‘excellent ornaments’ were defined (2.13.60-61), and the goldsmiths had to make them according to the specifications, and incurring minimum losses in metals and gems, not exceeding the prescribed limits (2.14.2-10).

Linked texts (1)

Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit