Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v2.c43.s3.t4: Vaidūrya and Marakata

Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v2.c43.s3.t4

Language: English

Vaidūrya and Marakata

v2.c43.s3.t4.1

Kautilya was the first to describe the vaidūrya gem:

v2.c43.s3.t4.2

वैदूर्य उत्पलवर्ण: शिरीषपुष्पक उदकवर्ण वंशराग: शुकपत्रवर्ण: vaidūrya utpalavarṇaḥ śirīṣapuṣpaka udakavarṇa vaṁśarāgaḥ śukapatravarṇaḥ (AS 2.11.30)

v2.c43.s3.t4.3

Beryl is of the colour of the blue lotus, of the śirīṣa flower, of the colour of water, green bamboo, parrot’s wing.

v2.c43.s3.t4.4

While describing beryl as many-hued, Buddhabhaṭṭa emphasized that its principal colours resembled the neck of the peacock and greenness of bamboo (RP, 203) : śikhi-kantha nila veṇudala prakāśa.

v2.c43.s3.t4.6

शुकपत्र वंशपत्र शैवालहरिता दूर्वापत्रनिभा खद्योत पृष्ठ संकाशा śukapatra vaṁśapatra śaivālaharitā dūrvāpatranibhā khadyota prstha saṁkāśā

Similar description has been provided in GP, 1.73.6-7. In chapter 6, we have presented extracts from the Mahābhārata which describe the nature of colour of the light and deep green blue beryl-cum-emerald-cum-aquamarine, which belong to the same family.

v2.c43.s3.t4.8

The family of beryl is a cyclosilicate Be₃Al₂Si₆O₁₈ which crystallises in the hexagonal system, sometimes occurring as long six-sided prisms, terminated by a basal plane (vide Kālidāsa’s long grass-green *ratnaśalākā* mentioned before). In pure form, beryl is colourless. Lattice sustitution by a very small quantity of chromium (in the form of Cr³⁺) makes the crystal light grass-green (typical *vaidūrya* of the early Sanskrit literature). Larger proportion of chromium (typically 0.2 per cent or above) results in intense green colour: ‘beautiful and deep emerald-green to grass-green, unrivalled in depth and brilliancy and comparable to the fresh green of a meadow in spring’. (Bauer, 1968: 308) This variety is well-known as emerald or *marakata* which was not mentioned by Kautilya, and the best samples were imported later to India probably from Ethiopia, Egypt, and during the Muslim period, from Turkey. Lattice substitution by iron to the extent of 1/2 to 2 per cent makes the crystal light blue, and such natural crystals have been known as aquamarine or *pāribhadra*. Greenish blue *utpalavarna* in *AS*, 2.11.30 an *indīvara śyamavapu utpala* in *Manimālā* (p. 510) is likely to be aquamarine. Ancient India was famous for the light-green as well as light blue beryl/aquamarine, the best supplies originating from Paddur, Kangayam and several other sites in the Coimbatore district. Beryl is also known to occur in yellowish green and pure golden yellow colour.

v2.c43.s3.t4.9

*Marakata* or emerald became popular in India only after Kauṭilya’s era. Buddhist monks and nuns were asked not to use shoes ornamented with, and bowls set with *vaidūrya*:

v2.c43.s3.t4.10

न वेलुरियमया पादुका धरितव्वा
*na veluriyamayā pādukā dharitavvā*
(*Mahāvagga*, 5.8.3)
न वेलुरियमया पठ्ठो धारेतव्वो
*na veluriyamayā paṭhtho dhāretavvo*
(*Cullavagga*, 5.9.1)

v2.c43.s3.t4.11

These were texts dated around 300 BC, in which *marakata* did not appear.

v2.c43.s3.t4.12

Evidently *marakata* or emerald was imported to India during the onset of the Christian era.

v2.c43.s3.t4.13

Though the occurrence of emerald in Ethiopia had been known to the ancients, the locality became completely forgotten. The earliest known emerald locality is in upper Egypt, not far from the coast of the Red Sea. The ancient mines discovered by Cailliaud in AD 1819 have been dated as early as 1650 BC; these are located in a depression of the long range of mountains which borders the west coast of the Red Sea. The mines are in Jebel (Mountain) Sikait (also Sakketto, from Sanskrit Saikat?) and Jebel Sabara (Zabara or Varvara in Sanskrit). Pliny mentioned the rocks about Coptos, as containing the celebrated mines of the old. These mines, known as Cleopatra’s emerald mines, located a little south of latitude 25°N, were close to the sea-coast as well as the desert and known as such by the Indian traders. The name marakata bears the imprint of maru (desert) and kata (from Pliny’s ‘Coptos’ or saikata meaning sea-coast or the mountain Sakketto?). In the justification of our hypothesis regarding the origin of word marakata, let us quote some Ratnaśāstra texts. Buddhabhaṭṭa wrote (RP, 150):

v2.c43.s3.t4.14

तद् वर्वरालयम् अतीत्य मरोः समीपे
स्थानम् क्षितेः उप पयोनिधि तीर देशे
तत् प्रत्ययान् मरकत आकरताम् जगाम।।
tad varvarālayam atitya maroḥ samīpe
sthānam ksiteḥ upa payonidhitīra deśe
tat pratyayān marakata ākaratām jagāma ||

v2.c43.s3.t4.15

The location of the marakata mine (ākara) past the sea-coast (tīradeśe) mountain Varvara and near the desert (maroḥ samīpe) has been strongly suggested. Agastimata (287) writes:

v2.c43.s3.t4.16

विषमस्थाने उदधेः तीरसन्निधौ धरणीन्द्र गिरिः तत्र
viṣamasthāne udadheḥ tīrasannidhau dharaṇīndra giriḥ tatra

v2.c43.s3.t4.17

and Ratnasaṃgraha (13) mentions:

v2.c43.s3.t4.18

म्लेच्छदेशे महाशैले शुकपक्षनिभ मरकत
mlecchadeśe mahāśaile śukapaksanibha marakata

v2.c43.s3.t4.19

as the source of marakata.

v2.c43.s3.t4.20

The Mahābhārata (12.46.33) has used another name for emerald, and that is masāragalu, masāra or masāraka. Monier-Williams explains in his Sanskrit Dictionary that Egypt was named as Misar or Misar in Sanskrit, and galu means a gem. Therefore masāragalu may be interpreted as the gem from Egypt, and that is consistent with the etymological origin of marakata explained earlier. The fourth century AD Prākṛt text Aṅgavijjā (58.20) mentions veruliya, maragata as well as masārakalla.

v2.c43.s3.t4.21

Emerald has few more name-equivalents in Sanskrit: harinmaṇi (green gem), garuḍodgāra, gārutmata, pannā, etc. The last three may be briefly explained. Ratnaparīkṣā and Agastimata narrated the myth or the folklore that gems had been derived from the body of the slain demon Bala: diamond from his bones, pearl from the blood, sapphire from the eyes, emerald from the bile, etc. The mythical bird Garuda had taken the green bile of the demon in its mouth and then vomitted it (hence the name gārutmata and garuḍodgāra) ‘on a mountain on the sea-coast near a desert beyond Barbara country’. We have earlier quoted the original Sanskrit text (RP, 150). Agastimata (285) mentioned Garuḍa as the king of the serpent-demon: pannagādhipaḥ. Panna also means something fallen down or dropped. Thus, the dropped bile of the serpent-demon or emerald also came to be known as pannā. It is an open question whether the location of the famous diamond mine in Bundelkhand was named Pānnā because it also yielded some emerald or pānnā. The Sanskrit word marakata was the origin of smaragdos in Greek, smaragdus in Latin, esmeralda in Spanish and emerald in English.

v2.c43.s3.t4.22

However, the Egyptian emerald had been known in Europe from a very early date. Herodotus mentioned the emerald colum in the temple of Hercules in Tyre ‘emitting a splendid light in night’. Plato mentioned the use of emerald. Aristotle’s disciple Theophrastus wrote that ‘smaragdos assimilates the colour of water into which it is thrown to its own colour’. Caesar and Cleopatra met in a hall of tortoise-shell, studded with emerald and topaz gems, Egypt having mines for both. Emperor Nero used to watch the feats of the gladiators, through an eye-glass of emerald. With the onset of the Indo-Roman trade during the first century BC, the Indians, long used to light-green vaidūrya or beryl gems, started importing and using the intense green-coloured gem of the same family viz., marakata or emerald. Some emerald might have been imported from Turuṣka or Turkey (MM, 357) during the Muslim period. The name tārkṣya stood for emerald (RRS, 4.5); Garuḍa was the son of Tṛkṣa.

v2.c43.s3.t4.23

The Ratnaśāstra texts such as RP, 152; MM, 377-379; GP, 1.71.12-17 described the colour and hue of the best quality emerald, and quite naturally used many of the adjectives and similies applied to beryl and aquamarine:

v2.c43.s3.t4.24

The peacock’s tail, the wing of the nīlakaṇṭha, parrot’s wing, moss, fresh grass, glow-worm’s back, the śirīṣa flower and so on. Agastimata (299) referred to the important property of emerald ‘spreading its green colour all around (pārśvarañjana) when viewed against light’:

v2.c43.s3.t4.25

कृत्वा करतले चैव भास्कराभिमुखं धृतम्।
रञ्जयेत् आत्मपार्श्व च महामरकतम् स्मृतम्।।
kṛtvā karatale caiva bhāskarābhimukhaṃ dhṛtam ।
rañjayet ātmapārśva ca mahāmarakatam smṛtam ।।

v2.c43.s3.t4.26

Buddhabhaṭṭa wrote (RP, 158-159): ‘When sun’s rays fall on it, shoots diffusion of light all around . . . infused light makes it appear like a green meadow: सवितुः करसम्पर्कात् च्छूर्यति सर्वाश्रयम् दीप्त्या . . . . . . अचिरप्रभा समद्युति नवाशद्वल सन्निभ भाति savituh karasamparkāt cchuryati sarvāśrayam dīptyā . . . . . . aciraprabhā samadyuti navaśādvala sannibha bhāti

v2.c43.s3.t4.27

Maṇimālā recorded (362-364) certain outstanding statements about emerald which ‘illumines a place when exposed to the sun; which is not extremely green, yet the splendour of which looks like the lightning’s play among fresh grass’ (MM, 362-363) and lastly ‘the sight of which instills the liveliest pleasure into the mind’: यश्च मनसः प्रसादं विदधाति निरीक्षित मतिमां च तत् मरकतम् महागुणम् इति रत्नविद्यां मनोवृत्तिः yaśca manasaḥ prasādaṃ vidadhāti nirīkṣita matimāṃ ca tat marakatam mahāguṇam iti ratnavidyāṃ manovṛttiḥ (MM, 364; also RP, 160 and GP, 1.71.12-15)

v2.c43.s3.t4.28

Garuda Purāṇa’s detailed description of marakata gems (GP, 1.71.1-29) clearly includes the characteristics of light green vaidūrya, bright marakata and bluish-green pannā, all belonging to the same family.

v2.c43.s3.t4.29

Perfect emerald gems were known to be rare, and the expression ‘an emerald without any flaw’ became proverbial. Defective pieces of emerald were sometimes encrusted with śilājatu (bitumen), stained and sand-grained (RP, 163). Bhallātaka and putrikā were common imitations, usually lighter, and losing brilliance on exposure and when rubbed (RP, 165-167; GP, 1.71.20-22). Fake emeralds were known to be softer and to be easily tarnished on application of lime which contrarily brightened real emeralds (MM, 382-83).

v2.c43.s3.t4.30

An emerald ‘endowed with virtues’ was known to ‘fetch more price than a ruby of equal weight’. As a corollary, the depreciation in the value of an emerald had to be more than that of ruby (RP, 173-74; GP, 1.71.28-29).

v2.c43.s3.t4.31

Skanda Purāṇa categorised the emeralds as those with quality and those with defects. The emeralds ‘with quality’ were further subdivided: गाढं दुर्वदालनिभं शलक्षणं उल्लसितं स्मृतम् पेशलं कलिमाग्राभं पित्तं शुकगरुत्प्रभम् मुग्धं तु तुलसी श्यामं पृथकं पद्मपत्रवत् gāḍham durvādalanibham ślakṣṇam ullasitam smṛtam

v2.c43.s3.t4.32

peśalam kalimāgrābham pittam śukagarūtprabham
mugdham tu tulasi śyāmam pṛthakam padmapatravat
(SP, 23.135)

v2.c43.s3.t4.33

That which resembles the green grass is called gāda; the pretty small one is called ullasita. That similar to the petals on top of a bud is called peśala; the one which reflects the feather of a parrot is called pittam. The mugdha variety is like tulasi (leaf) and pṛthaka resembles lotus

Linked texts (8)

Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
Cullavagga — Pāli
Mahāvagga — Pāli
Garuḍapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Skandapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Aṃgavijjā — Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit
Ratnaparīkṣā of Ṭhakkura Pheru — Ṭhakkura Pheru, Apabhraṃśa