Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v2.c46.s1: Archaeology and History
Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v2.c46.s1
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Archaeology and History
v2.c46.s1.1
Archaeology digs not only the earth but also into the past in a telling manner. In this modern age of sophisticated instrumentation, the ancient artefacts can be accurately analysed and C¹⁴-dated through the accompanying organic residues; as a contrast, there are controversies on the dates of several works of literature.
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On the other hand, the archaeological samples of minerals and metals are mute, and often do not tell whether these were imported or locally made, and in the latter case, the status of scientific knowledge of the indigenous manufacturers. The literary evidences tell us about the state-of-art and the status of concepts and philosophy. Even though the literary evidences on minerals and metals in the Indian scene are scanty, scattered and occasionally of uncertain date, these must be viewed as complementary to the archaeological evidences.
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The *Rgveda* describes the transition from the neolithic to the chalcolithic period in the Indian history (earlier than second millennium BC), the use of conch-shell and conch-pearl, different ill-defined metals, and widespread trade and navigation. Homer referred to the import of tin and ivory from India.
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The post-Ṛgvedic literatures describe purification steps, sieving, winnowing, smelting in furnaces using bellows and different kinds of metals—the ornamental and barter metals of gold and silver, low melting point metals lead and tin, copper and the new metal śyāma or iron obtained through solid state carbothermic reduction. The art of forging or joining of metals was mentioned.
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The problem of correlating archaeological and literary evidences is distinctly severe with the Ṛgveda and the epic Mahābhārata. The epic was definitely expanded from time to time, and the references to ant-gold, marakata or emerald and gem-incrustations must have been later-day insertions. We cannot accept that marakata was known to the residents of 1200 BC Hastināpura.
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On the other hand, the art of making iron, well-known in 1100 BC Atrañjikherā, was never fully recorded in the literature. High carbon steel was definitely made in the pre-Christian era Taxilā, but the scattered literary evidences came much later. Similarly, zinc and brass were known in Taxilā and during the Kauṭilya’s time, and yet the first clear reference to the making of these items came much later from the celebrated Nāgārjuna’s pen.
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The problem of correlating archaeological and literary evidences is not so great with Pāṇini and Kauṭilya. The writings of Pāṇini and Kauṭilya clearly reflect the contemporary scenes (fifth to third century BC) of material civilization in India. The coins, the multi-bellowed furnaces and beryl mentioned by Pāṇini, and vṛtta, the circular discs of carburised iron, tīkṣṇa, the steel and ārakūṭa, the high-zinc brass of Kauṭilya have all been found in the different pre-Christian era strata of Taxilā.
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The Gupta era splendour was fully reflected in the contemporary literatures. The then uses of gems, coins, copper, zinc, brass, iron and steel, the international trade with Sri Lanka and Rome, and the Graeco-Roman influence in India, etc. were revealed in many writings, Ratnaśāstras, Aṅgavijjā, Amarakośa, Bṛhatsaṃhitā and so on.
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The Rasaśāstra texts appeared after the decline of the Gupta era, and portrayed the decadent scenes of the Tāntric period, the continued practices of zinc, brass and ferrous metallurgy, the use of mineral-based medicines and the technological contact with China through Tibet. Ray (1956: 97) believed that the knowledge of zinc metallurgy came to India from China, but this was an erroneous view. India was the first to make zinc and brass; what we learnt from the Chinese were precipitation of copper from solution by scrap iron, the arts of making paper and gunpowder, etc.
Linked texts (7)
- Bṛhatsaṃhitā — Varāhamihira, Sanskrit
- Tibetan translation ('Chi med mdzod) — Classical Tibetan
- Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
- Ṛgvedasaṃhitā — Sanskrit
- Hastināpura
- Atranjikhera
- Aṃgavijjā — Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit