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A Concise History of Science in India c10.s3: Classical Age and Later

A Concise History of Science in India c10.s3

Language
English

Contents

Classical Age and Later

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In the Classical Age and later, agriculture made great headway as indicated by the wide variety of agricultural products grown in different parts of the country, and also the royal encouragement given to irrigation works. The well-organized governments under the Guptas in the Gangetic basin, Malwa, Gujarat and Kathiawar, of the Vākāṭakas and Chālukyas in the Deccan and of the Pallavas in the south took keen interest in, and adopted concerted measures for, the development of agriculture, which led to increased agricultural produce and a flourishing trade in a number of agricultural products. The State had realized the importance of the cultivation of waste lands (*khila*) and so offered liberal terms to the people to purchase them. Land-grants were also made by them on many occasions. The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang who visited India at this time gives an account of the agricultural as well as horticultural products grown in different regions, such as rice, wheat, ginger, mustard, tamarind, mango, melon, wood-apple, pear, plum, peach and apricot. He even speaks of a variety of rice produced at Po-li-ye-ta-lo (Pāriyātra, i.e. Bairat) which ripened in 60 days.b There is no denying the fact that in the period under reference food-grains and fruits were being cultivated on an extensive scale in several parts of the country. A number of literary works of the period, including the encyclopaedic ones, allude directly or indirectly to the agricultural practice as well as the rich produce. While the encyclopaedic ones like the *Amarakośa* and the *Bṛhatsaṃhitā* have in them sections on certain aspects of agriculture, a specific text known as *Kṛṣi Parāśara* deals entirely with agriculture. The contents of the latter may be taken to be as clearly indicative of the then existing knowledge and practice relating to agriculture, such as soil classification and land use, manuring, rotation of crops, irrigation, agricultural meteorology, tillage implements, protection of crops from diseases and pests, care of draught animal and grazing of cattle. The *Kṛṣi Parāśara* asserts: ‘… one taking to agriculture can become a sovereign monarch in the world. Rice is vitality, rice is vigour too, and rice (indeed) is the means of fulfilment of all the needs (of life). Gods, demons and human beings—all subsist on rice… Blessed is agriculture, holy agriculture and agriculture is the life of creatures… One furrow is conducive to victory, three are the givers of success and furrows numbering five give always crops.’a

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a Sharma (R. S.), pp. 95–96.

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b Watters, p. 300.

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The text no doubt has portions relating to rites and ceremonies in association with various agricultural operations. Not infrequently superstitious ideas, too, find expression in it. Nevertheless, it must be noted that religious practices of several descriptions were intricately woven into the social fabric of the ancient Indians and, as agriculture was the mainstay of the people, religious rites of superstitious nature were considered necessary in order to be successful in that operation which was, more often than naught, a gamble in rain.

Soil Classification and Land Use

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The suitability of different lands for the cultivation of different crops and herbs enumerated in the *Arthaśāstra* and the medical classics respectively has been mentioned already. But the *Amarakośa* describes 12 types of land depending upon the fertility of the soil, irrigation and physical characteristics. The 12 types as mentioned in the *Bhūmivarga*b of this lexicon are: *urvarā* (fertile), *ūṣara* (barren), *maru* (desert), *aprahata* (fallow), *śādvala* (grassy), *paṅkila* (muddy), *jalaprāyamanūpa* (watery), *kaccha* (land contiguous to water), *śarkarā* (land full of pebbles and pieces of limestone), *śarkarāvatī* (sandy), *nadīmātṛka* (land watered from a river) and *devamātṛka* (land watered by rain). In the *Vaiśyavarga*c we are informed of the different kinds of soils particularly fit for the cultivation of different kinds of crops as follows: *kṣetram*—rice and corn; *yavya*—barley; *tailīnam*—sesamum; *maudgīnam*—green gram, etc. There are also different names for lands ploughed once, twice and thrice, and at several stages.

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Use of Manure

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The *Bṛhatsaṃhitā*d prescribes that seeds which have been properly treated are to be sown with the addition of pork or venison into the soil (where previously sesame crop was raised, dug up and trodden) and sprinkled daily with water mixed with milk (*kṣīra*). It says further:a ‘To promote inflorescence and fructification, a mixture of one *āḍhaka* (64 *palas*) of sesame, 2 *āḍhakas* of excreta of goats or sheep, one *prastha* (16 *palas*) of barley powder, one *tolā* of beef thrown into one *droṇa* (256 *palas*) of water and standing over seven nights should be poured round the roots of the plant.’ In order to ensure sprouting and growth of luxurious stem and foliage, according to the *Bṛhatsaṁhitā*,b the seed should be soaked in an infusion made of paddy powder, *urad* (*māṣa*), sesame and barley which are mixed with decomposing flesh and the whole mass steamed with the addition of turmeric (*haridrā*). For the growth of *kapittha* (*Feronia elephantum*), the seeds should be soaked for a short time in a decoction of *āsphoṭa* (Jasmine), *āmalaki* (*Phyllanthus embellicus*), *dhava* (*Grislea tomentosa*), *vāsaka* (*Justica adhatoda*), *vetula* (*Calamus rotung*), *sūryavallī* (*Gynandropsis pentaphyta*), *śyāmā* (*Echites fructescens*) and *atimuktaka* (*Aganosma caryophyllata*) boiled in milk. The soaked seeds should be dried in the sun and the process is to be repeated for a month. A circular hole is to be made in the ground (1 cubit in diameter and 2 cubits in depth), and the milky decoction poured into it. When it dries up, it is burnt and pasted over with ashes mixed with ghee and honey. Three inches of soil should now be thrown into them along with the powder of bean, sesame and barley, and then again three inches of soil. Finally, washings of fish are to be sprinkled and the mud beaten to a thick consistency. Now the treated seeds should be placed in the hole.c

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a *Kṛ. P.*, 3–8, 143.

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b *Amara.*, 5–6, 10–13.

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c *Amara.*, 6–8.

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d *Bṛh. S.*, 55, 19–20.

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According to the *Agnipurāṇa*,d ‘a tree becomes laden with flowers and fruits by manuring the soil with powdered barley, sesamum and the offal matter of a goat mixed together and soaked in washings of beef for seven consecutive nights. A good growth of these is secured by sprinkling the washings of fish on them’.

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The *Kṛṣi Parāśara* says: ‘In the month of *Māgha* a dung heap is to be raised with the help of a spade. When it becomes dried in the sun, smaller balls are made out of it. In the month of *Phālguna*, the dried balls are placed into holes dug for the purpose in the field, and at the time of sowing they are scattered into the field.’e The practice of not disturbing the dung heap for a month means the minimization of the loss of nitrogen, the chief fertilizing element, that of drying into balls results in the reduction of active ammonia which may be injurious to the plants, while that of placing the dung balls into pits increases the humus which undoubtedly contributes to the fertility of the soil.

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The use of flesh of animals, fish-washings, vegetable products and the farm-yard manure consisting of the excreta of various animals, mixed with litter which would absorb the animal urine, indicates that the farmers of the ancient period were well aware of their fertilizing property and also the physical effects of the manure upon the texture and water-holding power of the soil, although they did not certainly possess the precise chemical knowledge of these fertilizers. It is now known that the farm-yard manure contains all the essential plant nutrients, viz. nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. It is obvious that the knowledge of manuring in those early days was apparently the result of extensive practical observations and not based on the laboratory observations of the modern type.

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a *Bṛh. S.*, 55, 17–18.

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b *Bṛh. S.*, 55, 26–27.

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c *Bṛh. S.*, 55, 22–26.

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d *Ag. Pu.*, 282, 11–12.

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e *Kṛ. P.*, 109–110.

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*Agricultural Implements and Accessories*

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The *Amarakośa* lists a number of agricultural implements such as plough (*lāṅgala*, *hala*), pin of yoke (*yugakīlaka*), shaft of the plough (*lāṅgaladaṇḍa*), goad (*prājana*, *tọdana*), harrow (*koṭiśa*), spade or hoe (*khanitra*), sickle (*dātra*, *lavitra*), tie for fastening the yoke to the plough (*yotra*), post for threshing grain on the floor (*medhī*), winnowing basket (*śūrpa*, *prasphoṭana*) and sieve (*cālanī*, *titau*).a But it is in the *Kṛṣi Parāśara* that we find a detailed description of the plough. According to this text the plough consists of the following parts:b *Yuga* (yoke), *aḍḍacalla* (pins of the yoke), *īṣa* (pole of the plough), *niryola* (rod of the plough exclusive of the pole and the ploughshare), *śaula* (an extra piece of wood that tightly fixes the *niryola* to the pole), *niryolapāśikā* (plates), *halasthāṇu* (strong piece of wood fixed to the *niryola* at the end opposite to where the ploughshare is fixed), *paccanī* (goad made of bamboo with iron top), *abandha* (iron rod which prevents *niryola* from getting out of the pole, *yoktra* (tie) and *phāla* (ploughshare). The text also gives dimensions of some of the parts in terms of plough.

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In addition, details are also given of *sṛṇī* (sickle), *khanitra* (hoe), *musala* (pestle), *udūkhala* (mortar), *śūrpa* (winnowing basket), *dhānyakṛt* (winnowing fan), *cālanī* (sieve) and *methī* (threshing post).

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*Irrigation*

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As already noted, one of the types of land went under the appelation *nadī-mātṛka* which depended on irrigation utilizing the river water. There is enough evidence to indicate that due recognition was given to irrigation, both natural and artificial. The former channelled the water of the rivers and the monsoons in the northern and north-eastern parts of India respectively and the latter which utilized the stored water in tanks, pools and wells was adopted in the central, north-western and southern parts of India.

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The *Nāradasmṛti* states that the erection of dyke in the middle of another man's field is not prohibited in view of the fact that it would be advantageous for irrigation purposes, while the loss is trifling. It states further that a man with the permission of the owner canc restore a decayed dyke although without the owner's consent he cannot use it. Nārada classifies the dykes into *kheyā* (which is dug into the soil to drain off excess water) and *bandhya* (which is constructed to prevent the water from flowing out).a

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a * Vaiśyavarga, 12–15, 26.

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b *Kṛ. P.*, 110–17.

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c *Nār. Smṛ.*, 11, 17 and 20.

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The State evinced keen interest in the upkeep of irrigation works and even framed rules for their proper functioning. A large number of canals were constructed with a view to not only carrying the water from the rivers or tanks but also preventing the lands from being inundated by swollen rivers. Rightly, therefore, the *Amarakośa* refers to the canals as drains (*jalanirgamah*).b In the eighth century A.D. King Lalitāditya of Kashmir got constructed a series of water-wheels to distribute the seasonal flood waters of the Vitasta and the Mahāpadma lakes to various villages and this resulted in the irrigation of the fields. Later in the ninth century, during the reign of Avantivarman, his minister Sūrya constructed a number of dams and irrigation canals which enabled the country to possess abundant agricultural produce.c

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Reference has been made already to the Sudarśana Lake. When this lake burst again due to heavy rainfall, Cakrapālita, who was the governor of the region, reconstructed it after two months' effort involving huge expenditure. The embankment made was 100 cubits in length, 68 cubits in breadth and seven-man heightd (about 312 cubits).

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Crops

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In the Gupta period there were three harvests—summer, autumnal and vernal crops—as mentioned in the *Bṛhatsaṁhitā*.e The seeds sown in summer would be duly reaped in *Śrāvaṇa* (early part of autumn) and the harvest was known as autumn crops. The grains sown in autumn yielded vernal crops and those sown in early spring gave the summer crops in *Caitra* or *Vaiśākha*.f It is reasonable to suppose that the first two crops were stable crops such as rice and wheat, and the last was of pulses, beans, etc. The rules of cultivation depending upon the season, rainfall, etc., had established themselves and the farmers had the necessary practical knowledge of engaging in agricultural operations leading to the production of a number of grains. A number of crops were grown during this period such as rice, wheat, barley, peas, lentil, pulses, spices and vegetables. Kālidāsa in his *Raghuvaṁśa* refers to paddy being grown in the fields of Bengal.g The varieties of rice grown included *śāli*, *kamalā*, *nīvāra*, *uñccha*-paddy and *śyāmāka*-paddy, red rice, yellow rice and hog's rice... *Śāli*-paddy was grown as transplantation and this means that the transplantation technique was known to the cultivators. Wheat was grown in the Panjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, central India and Rajasthan, as a *rabi* or winter crop and wherever possible through irrigation. Of the vegetables grown, the *Amarakośa* mentions cucumber, onion, pumpkin and gourd. Sugar-cane was cultivated in the fields where rice used to be grown and harvested generally in winter. Cotton was grown mainly in Saurāṣṭra or Kathiawar. The cultivation of silk-cotton, flax and hemp was also known. Pepper and cardamom were grown principally in the southern parts of India, particularly in the valleys of the modern Nilgiris. The other spices grown included mustard, cloves, ginger and turmeric. Saffron, betel-nut, tamarind, sesamum, linseed, *priyaṅgu*, aloe, indigo, etc., were also raised. Of the number of fruits grown, mango was the most popular. Coconut was extensively used in the coastal areas of Bengal, Orissa and Madras.

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a *Nār. Smṛ.*, 9, 18.

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b *Amara., Pātālavarga*, 7.

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c *Rājt.*, 4, 191; 5, 69–72, 80–121.

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d *E.I.*, VIII, 43.

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e *Bṛh. S.*, 8, 47; 9, 42–43; 11, 2–3; 25, 2; 27, 1.

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f *Bṛh. S.*, 8,12.

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g Maity, pp. 80–81.

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*Treatment of Plant Diseases*

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The *Vṛkṣāyurveda* of Śūrapāla, which is believed to have been written by about the tenth century A.D., gives an interesting account of treating the plant diseases. The diseases of all trees are classified into two groups, viz. (i) those arising from the body, e.g. internal, and (ii) those attacking from outside. The bodily or internal diseases are said to arise from disorders of the wind (*vāta*), phlegm (*kapha*) and bile (*pitta*), while the extraneous ailments are caused by vermin, frost, etc. To indicate some of the well-known methods of treatment mentioned in the text,a the relevant translations of the Sanskrit portions are given below:

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‘One should cure the diseases of wind-disorders by the administration of flesh, lymph, fat and *ghee*. Nutriment provided by these substances removes all wind-troubles.
Liberal fumigations with oils in which soap-berry, cow’s horn, horse’s hair, black pepper, *ghee* and porpoise have been boiled, and the lymph of a hog added, quickly remove the diseases of the wind.
The trees are cured of bilious diseases by being watered with the decoctions of liquorice, honey and *madhuka* and with milk mixed with honey.
All kinds of trees are relieved of bilious diseases if they are watered with the decoction (?) of the three myrobalans in which *ghee* and honey have been mixed.
Insects are destroyed by the administration of water containing milk, carcass, *vacā* and cow-dung, and by the plaster prepared from white mustard, *mustā* grass, *vacā*, *kuṣṭha* and *ativia*.
Fumigation of the tree with the fumes of white mustard, *rāmatha* (?), *viḍaṅga*, *vacā*, black pepper, beef, *ambu* (a kind of Andropogan), horn of buffalo and flesh of a pigeon, mixed with the powder of *lodhra*, at once destroys the colonies of insects infesting the trees.
Plastering with *viḍaṅga* mixed with *ghee*, irrigation with diluted milk for seven days and a poultice of beef, white mustard and sesamum are effective in destroying insects like *kandara* (?).

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a Manuscript, Oxford, No. 324 B (Mr. Walkar 137). available in the Bodleian Library, Oxford.

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Injury caused by insects is healed by a plaster of *vidaṅga*, sesamum, cow's urine, *ghee* and white mustard and by watering with milk.

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The broken trees are (healed and) restored to health if their fractures are filled with fertile soil, plastered with (the powder of) the barks of *plakṣa* and *udumbara* mixed with *ghee*, honey, wine and milk and then tightly tied with ropes and sprinkled with buffalo's milk and, finally, watered copiously at the roots.

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The trees, whose branches have fallen off, would grow branches so abundantly that they would obstruct the view of the sky, if the broken ends of their branches are plastered with honey and *ghee* and they are watered with diluted milk and fumigated.

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Trees damaged by fire would cover the sky with foliage, if they are plastered all over with the paste of the lotus-plant and fed with carcass-water.

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Trees struck by lightning would bear beautiful leaves, if they are plastered with *vidārī*, sugar, red arsenic and sesamum and watered with diluted milk.'

Animal Husbandry

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In the ancient period, a good deal of attention was paid to animal husbandry which included breeding, feeding and maintenance of domestic animals or livestock. Cows and bulls particularly received special treatment. The *Bṛhaspati-smṛti* prescribes severe and cruel punishment for the theft of a cow.a The offender was made to lick a ploughshare made of iron having weight of 12 *palas* and heated to redness. If he was not *burnt* in this process, he would be set free. Bulls and bullocks which were employed widely as draught animals were looked after with great care. The *Kṛṣi Parāśara*b contains a number of rules of tending the cattle. Practically every village possessed common pasture and woodlands and places of drinking-water for the cattle. Cowsheds were always kept clean and the *Kṛṣi Parāśara* gives directions as to how the shed could be kept clean.c According to this text, a shed measuring five by five (?) is good for the healthy growth of cattle and 'the washing of rice, hot scum of the boiled rice, fish broth, cotton seeds and husk, if kept in the cowshed, prove baneful to the cattle'. Incidentally, this gives an idea of the fodder of the cattle at that time. 'To safeguard against the breaking out of diseases, the shed should be occasionally fumigated with vapours of *devadāru* (*Pinus deodara*), *vacā* (oris root), *māṁsī* (pulp of some fruits?), *guggulu* (a fragrant gum resin), *hiṅg* (asafoetida) and mustard seeds mixed together', according to the *Agnipurāṇa*.d The *Viṣṇudharmottara*e describes certain medical practices of treating the diseased cattle for curing their affected horn, ear, eyes, tooth, tongue, throat, bladder, etc. The text says that oil in which the pounded mass of ginger, *baṭa* and *jaṭāmāṃsī* has been cooked, and rock-salt and honey added, should be applied to the roots of the horns. The powder of the roots of wood-apple tree, *apāmārga*, *dhātakī*, *paṭala* and *kuṭaja* when rubbed into gums removes toothache. Ginger, turmeric and the three myrobalans are indicated in the cure of sore-throat, and a certain prepared collyrium for the eyes. For the reunion of fractures, *priyaṅgu* mixed with salt is recommended. The bilious disorders are stated to be cured by the administration of cow’s *ghee* in which liquorice has been cooked. Ailing calves should be made to drink *pāṭhā* stirred in butter-milk or turmeric dissolved in milk for the alleviation of their suffering. Oilcake in general was considered to be an elixir for the cattle. Salt is to be given to the cattle once in 15 days to prevent constipation, colic diseases and loss of appetite.a On the whole, animal husbandry was of sufficiently high order in the ancient period.

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a *Bṛh. Smṛ.*, 10, 2.

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b *Kṛ. P.*, 84–88.

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c *Kṛ. P.*, 89–92.

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d *Ag. Pu.*, 292, 33.

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e *Vi. Pu.*, 2, 43.1–27.

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In the ancient period, agriculture in India, though noted for its extensive and vigorous growth, was not entirely free from conventional practices which sometimes bordered on superstitions and astrological beliefs. Agricultural meteorology, for that matter, was undoubtedly based on conventional knowledge and a good deal of astrological calculations made inroads into it. The rainfall in different seasons of the year was sought to be correlated with the *nakṣatras* or lunar asterisms, and one of the planets was considered to be the presiding deity of the rainfall of the year. The commencement of the agricultural operation, worship of the plough and the animals, auspicious time for harvesting, etc., were conceived in terms of the prevailing planetary influences. Even now, this type of knowledge is current in most rural parts of the country.

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While considering agricultural practices in India in the ancient period, there is one important aspect which should not go unnoticed. India for ages has been known for its pithy sayings and proverbs which contain specialized information on various subjects in an epigrammatic style. These are in several Indian languages like Maithili, Tamil, Bengali and Hindi. Many a popular saying has been found in one of the manuscripts on *Vṛkṣāyurveda* and in the *Kṛṣi Parāśara* enshrined in the Adyar Library, Madras. Some of these sayings are given below:b

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‘Wheat should be sown in a somewhat dry field and barley in a wet field. If there is heavy rain, then chicken-pea should be sown.
Maize, jowar and millet should be sown somewhat sparesely.
Whosoever sows millet at the intervals of a step, and jowar at the intervals of frog’s leap, would be able to fill his barn with the crop.
If the August-September (*Bhadon*) sowing of paddy be done in a field which has been well dug up and prepared (in the month of *Jeṭh*, i.e. May-June), then there would be plenty of rice-flakes (*chinda*) to enjoy.

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a *Vi. Pu.*, 2, 43.28.

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b *Vṛ. Āyur.*, 91–178.

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Poppy and linseed should be sown (close) in a wet field.

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In one *bighā* of land the following quantities of different seeds should be sown:

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| Barley and wheat | .. | .. | 25 seersa each |
| Peas | .. | .. | 30 seers |
| Chicken-peas | .. | .. | 15 ,, |
| Maize | .. | .. | 2 ,, |
| Arhar, methi and urad | | .. | 2 ,, |
| Cotton | .. | .. | 1½ seer |
| Rice | .. | .. | 25 seers |
| Jodhan | .. | .. | 15 ,, |
| Sāwan (rice) | | .. | 1½ seer |
| Sesamum and mustard | | .. | A handful each |
| Barrain and kodan | | .. | One seer each |
| Linseed | .. | .. | 1½ seer |
| Millet, bajri and sāwan | | .. | 1½ ,, |
| Kodan and kakun | | .. | ½ ,, |

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A cultivator who sows according to the above proportion would be rewarded with double the crop.

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If there be moisture below (in the soil) and clouds above, then the veterans declare that *gerui* disease would be rampant.

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If the east wind blows during the month of *Phāgun* (February-March), then wheat crop would be infected with *gerui*.

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If the east wind blows in the months of *Māgha* and *Pauṣ* (December-January), then mustard would be eaten away by *mohun* (an insect).

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If the south wind blows, how it would be possible to taste the scum of boiled rice (for, there would be no harvest of paddy)?

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The *gerui* disease begins when the sun is in the sign of Aquarius (i.e. February-March) and disappears when it is in the sign of Pisces (March-April). It starts from the stalk and eats away the leaves.

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If wheat is infected with *gerui* and paddy with *gandhi*, then the cultivator would die of starvation (i.e. want of food-grains).

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If in the month of *Māgha* (January-February) the colour of the cloud is red, then surely there would be a shower of hail-stones.

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If chicken-pea crop is chilled with cold, then it could be eaten away by the insect called *gadhaita*.

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If there is rainfall under the *Citrā* constellation, then the entire harvest would perish.

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Under the *Maghā* constellation the locusts thrive and under the *Pūrvā dāns* (insects) flourish. But under *Uttara* all these are destroyed.

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If there is continuous rainfall day and night, then *sāwan* and *sathi* would be ready for harvesting in 60 days.

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a 1 seer = about 2 lb.

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With rainfall under the constellation *Maghā* and food served by the mother, the starving person (would get so much that he) will not have to pray to God for food.
If there be rainfall at the rise of constellation *Citrā* and at the setting of *Hastā*, then the people would not complain howsoever heavily they may be taxed by the king.
If the weather is not sufficiently cold in the month of *Māgha* (January-February), then take it for granted, my friend, that food-grains would become dear (by their prices rising high).
If the south wind blows during the months of *Pauṣ* and *Māgha*, then it is a good sign for (rainfall during) the month of *Sāwan*.
If there is rainfall under the *Maghā* constellation, then all food-grains will have good crop.
If the *Hastā* constellation wags its tail (i.e. sends showers just before setting), then the wheat would thrive without much effort.'

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Agriculture as an avowed occupation of the countless Indian peasants flourished with centuries of experience and struggle against the natural oddity in the plains, the hilly tracts and in areas where semi-arid conditions prevailed. With passage of time cultivated areas were on the increase, more rivers harnessed for irrigation and more tanks, wells and other reservoirs constructed. For in the ancient period, Indian economy was intimately interlocked with agriculture.

Cites (10)