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A Concise History of Science in India c13.s2: Main Literary Sources

A Concise History of Science in India c13.s2

Language
English

Main Literary Sources

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Even though the physical concepts of the Indian thinkers are in point of fact bold and imaginative, strangely there are no Indian texts which exclusively deal with them. Each system of Indian thought has built up its own physical and metaphysical views. One has to go through a voluminous literature to locate the origin and trace the evolution of the Indian physical concepts. The Vedic literature (the four *Saṃhitās*, *Brāhmaṇas*, *Āraṇyakas*, *Upaniṣads* and the *Vedāṅgas*); the *Purāṇas*, epics and *itihāsas*: the literature of the *Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika*, *Sāṃkhya*, *Yoga* and the *Mīmāṃsās*; the Buddhist and the Jaina texts; the tantrik literature; works on *Āyurveda* and astronomy are among the important literary sources which contain the fundamental as well as evolved physical ideas of Indians over a long period—perhaps stretching to about two thousand years. The literature is as varied as it is vast; for even in the works of a particular school of thinking the conceptual scheme relating to certain physical concepts like atomism, space and time, presents a wide spectrum of ideas. Nevertheless, it would be wrong to conclude that the speculations are an ensemble of dogmatic, complex assertions. On the other hand, they are refreshingly noted for their logical structure cast in a well conceived and rigorously balanced causal sequence. In essence, then, they are logical postulates.

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Among the main literary sources those which expound one of the systems of Indian thought, viz. the *Vaiśeṣika*, are very important from the point of view of the physical concepts. The *Vaiśeṣika sūtra* of Kaṇāda and the *Padārthadharmasaṃgraha* of Praśastapāda are the two principal authorities of the *Vaiśeṣika* school. Though a gloss on the *Vaiśeṣika sūtra*, the *Padārthadharmasaṃgraha* has the characteristics of an original work. The *Vaiśeṣika* school is supposed to have been propounded by a sage called Kaṇāda. Kaṇāda, Kaṇabhuj or Kaṇabhakṣa, as he is differently referred to, means one who eats particle or grain, indicating probably the atomic particles; and this is attributed to the fact that Kaṇāda enunciated the essentials of an atomic theory.a The *Vaiśeṣika*, even in its *sūtra* form, is very old, possibly pre-Buddhistic.b However, the origins of the *Vaiśeṣika sūtras* are obscure. There are reasons to believe that the *Vaiśeṣika* school in its beginning was heterodox in position not taking shelter under the umbrella of orthodox Vedic views. Later it appears to have absorbed the Vedic concept of *dharma* and thus entered the orthodox fold.c Nevertheless, it is rather important to note that the *Vaiśeṣika* recognizes both perception and inference as means of acquiring knowledge and does not accord a pride of place to the authority of the Vedic tenets.

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In its ten chapters the *Vaiśeṣika sūtra* of Kaṇāda deals with a number of physical concepts, the most important of which are those concerning substance, motion, attributes, space, time and atomism. These were developed later by a number of followers of the *Vaiśeṣika* and the *Nyāya* schools. By about the tenth century A.D. the two schools began to be recognized by a syncretic nomenclature, the *Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika*. The *Vaiśeṣika* and the *Nyāya* schools developed a theory of causation known as *ārambhavāda*. The two significant aspects of the *ārambhavāda* are: (i) that the cause and the effect are different and (ii) that there is a continuity (*sānvayata*) between the two. In this process of thinking the relation between the whole and its *parts* is rather interesting. The whole, when it comes into existence, is non-existent as separate parts; for as an effect it has a new beginning. Yet when the whole is destroyed the parts exist, and the parts have altogether a different significance. The important physical concepts of the *Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika* in general and the atomism in particular are based upon this theory of causation.a

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a Ui, pp. 4 ff.

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b Das Gupta (S. N.), I, pp. 281-82.

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c Hiriyanna (2), pp. 39-40, 84.

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Apart from the *Vaiśeṣika sūtra* and the *Padārthadharmasaṁgraha* of Praśastapāda, the other *Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika* texts which contain significant accounts of the Indian physical concepts and deserve special mention are: *Nyāya-sūtra* by Gautama (*c.* fourth century B.C.); *Nyāyabhāṣya* by Vātsyāyana (*c.* fourth century A.D.); *Nyāya-vārttika* by Udyotakara (seventh century A.D.); *Nyāyasāra* by Bhāsarvajña (eighth century A.D.); *Nyāyavārttika tātparyaṭīkā* by Vācaspati Miśra (ninth century A.D.); *Nyāyamañjarī* by Jayanta Bhaṭṭa (ninth century A.D.); *Vyomavatī* by Vyomaśivācārya (*c.* ninth century A.D.); *Kiraṇāvalī* by Udayana (tenth century A.D.); *Nyāyakandalī* by Śrīdhara (tenth century A.D.); *Saptapadārthī* by Śivāditya (eleventh century A.D.); *Nyāyalīlāvatī* by Vallabhācārya (twelfth century A.D.); *Nyāyasiddhāntadīpa* by Śaśadhara (twelfth century A.D.); *Tattvacintāmaṇi* by Gaṅgeśa Upādhyāya (thirteenth century A.D.); *Upaskāra* and *Kaṇādarahasya* by Śaṅkara Miśra (fifteenth century A.D.); *Padārthatattva nirūpaṇa* by Raghunātha Śiromaṇi (sixteenth century A.D.); and *Bhāṣāpariccheda* and *Nyāya-muktāvalī* by Viśvanātha (seventeenth century A.D.).b

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Of the Jaina texts, Umāsvāti's *Tattvārthādhigamasūtra* (second century A.D.); *Bhagvatī Sūtra* (*c.* fourth to fifth centuries A.D.); Siddhasena Divākara's *Nyāyāvatāra* (sixth century A.D.); Nemicandra's *Dravyasaṁgraha* (twelfth century A.D.); Mallisena's *Syādvādamañjarī* (thirteenth century A.D.) are important. Among the noted Buddhist works are *Saṁyutta Nikāya*, *Dhammasaṅgaṇi*, Buddhaghoṣa's *Atthasālinī* and *Visudhimagga* (*c.* fifth century A.D.); Vasubandhu's *Abhidhammakośa* (fourth to sixth centuries A.D.); *Abhidhammatthasaṁgraha*; Diṅnāga's *Pramāṇasamuccaya* and *Nyāyapraveśa* (sixth century A.D.) and Dharmakīrtti's *Nyāyabindu* (seventh century A.D.).

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In this short account an attempt is made only to present a bird's-eye view of the important physical concepts of the Indian thinkers as contained in the literary sources. Perhaps it would have been appropriate if a periodwise presentation of these concepts and conceptual schemes was attempted bringing to the fore at the same time their originators. In the present state of knowledge it is feared that such an attempt may result in historically tantalizing inaccuracies. In view of this, what follows is a broad historical outline of the significant views and concepts of the Indians concerning the physical world. Later, they are discussed under such heads as are relevant to our purpose.

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a Bhaduri, 4 and 12.

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b Gopinath, pp. 1–85.

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*Indian Physical Concepts in Ancient and Medieval Periods* *(An Outline)*

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*c.* 2000–1500 B.C. *Ṛgveda* Emergence of monistic ideas—*Viśvajyoti* (cosmic light) as principle of life, soul of all gods and the essence behind all manifestations; *ṛta* (natural law) as transcendental and unitary principle of all motions; *yajña* (sacrifice) as connective dynamic principle and nucleus of all evolution; and *ap* (primeval water) as the supra-sensible first cause.

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*c.* 700 600 B.C. *Upaniṣadic literature* Step by step evolution of the doctrine of five elements (*pañcamahābhūtas*), concepts of space and time leading to a progressive understanding of Brahman as the Universal Spiritual Principle.

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*The Vaiśeṣika school* Aphoristic conceptual presentation relating to substance, qualities and motion; the five elements, space and time among the reals; atomism; the *ārambhavāda* as a theory of causation to include phenomenal knowledge.

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*c.* 600-200 B.C. *Buddhism and Jainism* New approach to the problem of matter and motion.

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*The Cārvāka school* Direct perception as the only means of knowledge; acceptance of the theory of four elements (earth, fire, water and air).

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*c.* 200 B.C.–A.D. 400 *Systematic formulations of the Vaiśeṣika, Nyāya, Mīmāṁsā and Sāṁkhya.* Integrated view of substance; examination of the means of knowledge; the real and the unreal about space, time and sound.

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*The Jaina and the Bauddha literature* Atomism finding new adherents among the Jainas; the doctrine of momentariness of the Bauddhas and the problem of matter; atoms and qualities as force; space and time in relation to matter and atoms.

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| *c.* A.D. 400–1200 | *Commentaries on orthodox and heterodox original works* Doctrine of elements finding newer interpretations; fresh ideas about atom, space and time according to some Bauddha and the Jaina schools; atoms-dyads-triads, motion, heat, light and sound finding elaborate expressions at the hands of commentators of the *Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika* and the *Mīmāmsā* schools within the meaning of the original notion; concepts of *pīlupāka* and *piṭharapāka*; sense-contact theory of perception of objects; views on production, destruction and eternality of sound. |
| *c.* A.D. 1200–1800 | *Rise and spread of neo-logic (navya nyāya) in eastern India* Physical concepts becoming intertwined with the theory of knowledge and kindred logical questions; new meanings of space, time and atomism in relation to the Supreme. |

Cites (27)