A Concise History of Science in India c13.s8: Ākāśa, Space and Time

A Concise History of Science in India c13.s8

Language: English

Ākāśa, Space and Time

c13.s8.1

Among the Indian physical concepts those relating to *ākāśa*, space and time deserve special mention.a As has been seen, earth, water, fire and air are material substances; as produced substances they are non-eternal. However, in the form of atoms they are eternal. On the other hand, *ākāśa*, space and time are non-material, eternal and all-pervading even though they are grouped along with the first four under the category of substance.

c13.s8.2

Among the three, it is *ākāśa* alone which has a special quality like the first four, and its specific quality is sound. This specific quality, however, exists only in some part of the ubiquitous or all-pervading *ākāśa* at a particular instant, while the specific qualities of the other four substances respectively pervade in them. Another aspect of *ākāśa* is that though non-material, it is recognized as one of the five elements, and thus is capable of playing its role in the formation of gross bodies. All corporeal substances are held to be in direct contact with *ākāśa* which is a vast expanse or an infinite continuum. The auditory organ is also regarded as of *ākāśa* itself as a logical necessity. For, if the auditory organ is to experience the quality of sound of which *ākāśa* is the substratum, the organ itself must be in the very nature of *ākāśa*.

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a Bhaduri, pp. 164–228.

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Space and time differ from *ākāśa* in this respect that there is no specific quality for each of the former. Both space and time have, however, the other five qualities as *ākāśa*, viz. number, dimension, distinctness, conjunction and disjunction. As indicated already, these five qualities which are regarded as generic, are shared by all the nine substances.

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The *Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika* holds that space is the cause or basis of the ten notions of east, west, north, south and the like with respect to one material object relative to another material object as the starting point of the limit. For the sake of usage the ten literal names like east, west, etc., are coined with reference to the contact with the reference-body, viz. sun. Even so, space is regarded as one, eternal and all-pervading. Space appears to have been conceived by the *Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika* as a positionally relating one, providing an arrangement or order to discrete objects so that their positions become intelligible. Because of space the corporeal substances are cognized as occupying different places. Distance is not understood as parts of stretch of space, but thought of as number of conjunctions with reference to the observer. If the number of conjunction is more between the observer and a particular object than it is with another object, the fomer is observed as being prior to the latter. The transitive principle which relates the two objects and which points out their posteriority or priority, is space. Thus space is not a mere receptacle into which bodies are filled here and there. It is an objective reality possessing certain qualities. However, the qualities like remoteness, proximity imply an observer as a frame of reference. The presence of an observer is necessary, but not sufficient condition; for, according to the *Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika*, the object has to be in conjunction with space which is a real substance.

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Like space, time is another real which is the cause or basis of production, persistence and destruction of all produced things. It is also the basis for common notions such as *kṣaṇa*, *lava*, *kāṣṭhā*, *māsa*, *ṛtu*, *yuga*, *kalpa*, *pralaya* and *mahāpralaya*. Priority (*paratva*) or posteriority (*paratva*) as a quality of the produced things resides in it with reference to the number of solar revolutions (*ādityaparivartanāni*). One complete revolution of the sun round the earth (equivalent to a day) is one solar revolution which is the basis or standard of reference. If A is regarded as prior to B and if A and B are existing, it means that the former must have been connected with a greater number of solar revolutions than the latter. Time is the relation or the linking factor between the unit and the universal solar revolution. It is therefore objectively real. Besides, time is essential as the efficient cause of notions such as ‘youth’, ‘old’, etc. In other words, because of time, the growth and decay in material objects are perceived.

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Time is thought of in diverse ways on account of the diversity of such situations as production, continuance and disappearance of all things. Events derive their chronological order on account of time. The past, present and future are empirical divisions of time. The coming into being of an effect indicates the future; its persistence means the present; and its destruction connotes the past. The notions of past and future are with reference only to the present, according to the *Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika*. In this interpretation, time is reckoned in terms of its *kriyā* or action also.a The present relates, say in the case of falling object, the action of falling and the object; the past means that the connection between the object and the falling action is over; and future refers to such a connection yet to materialize.

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Space and time have many things in common in the *Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika*. Yet they are distinctly separate substances, even though they possess the same qualities. The difference lies in interpreting time on the basis of action while space is not conceived of that way.

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The Jainas, in general, believe that time is *ajīva* (non-conscious) and without any *kāya*, but eternal and without motion, even though some thinkers among them differ from this viewpoint. The present, past and future are referred to by the Jainas as phenomenal time, *vyavahāra kāla* or *samaya*, i.e. they are intimately connected with certain events or phenomena bringing about changes. Obviously this is ‘relative-time’.b The Jainas also think that there is yet another time known as *niścayakāla*, i.e. noumenal time. The noumenal time is the basis or support (*ādhāra*) of the phenomenal time. Besides, it is the cause of changes in substances and without it no change is possible. In sum, the Jaina view of time is not wholly different from that of the *Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika*. However, there seems to be one important difference, viz. the Jainas (the *Digambaras*) do not consider time as one and all-pervasive. Instead they hold that there are distinctive time units corresponding to distinctive human experiences. They are the ultimate time-units, called *kālāṇus*, i.e. atoms of time—as indivisible as atoms, discrete and infinitesimal. Each *kālāṇu* is supposed to occupy only one *pradeśa* and hence *kāla* has no ‘*kāya*’.c

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While the *Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika* and the Jaina schools recognize the absolute reality of time, the Buddhists and the followers of *Sāṃkhya* and the Vedāntins deny the objective existence of time. The followers of the *Yoga* school of Patañjali seem to accept only *kṣaṇa* (i.e. moment) as the ultimate unit of time and imagine an uninterrupted flow of these ultimate units. The Vedāntins regard time as of nescience (*avidyā*), i.e. time has no reality.

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In addition to the foregoing, there are a number of other views about time. For example, the celebrated *Purāṇas* speak of time as all-powerful Deity. The *Yoga Vāśiṣṭha* says that time and space are relative thought-models which are dependent upon mind. A few tantrik texts consider time even as *Śakti* which governs creation, persistence and destruction. But these views deserve only passing mention.

Cites (1)

Davvasaṃgaha — Nemicandra Siddhāntideva, Śaurasenī Prakrit