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Ancient Indian Education (Brahmanical and Buddhist) c12.s2: Preliminary Queries

Ancient Indian Education (Brahmanical and Buddhist) c12.s2

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Preliminary Queries

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When the intending pupil is thus properly dressed, he had to satisfy some preliminary queries put to him by the teacher before he initiates him. The first query was as regards his name and lineage. The second asked him to declare formally that he wants admission as a disciple. The form of the declaration is thus prescribed by Hiraṇyakeśin [i, 2, 5, 2]: “I have come hither to be a student. Initiate me! I will be a student, impelled by the god Savitṛi.” Pāraskara makes the teacher ask the pupil, “Whose pupil art thou?” and the pupil answer, “Yours” [ii, 2, 19–20]. The object of this was probably to make the pupil promise that he would abide by the rules of *brahmacharya* upon which he would be presently entering. According to Vishṇu [xxix, 5, 9, 10] the teacher must not admit to his teaching one whom he does not know. There are also laid down certain moral conditions qualifying a pupil for admission. “He must not be a scorner, a wicked man, or one of uncontrolled passions; he must be pure, attentive, possessed of a good memory, and chaste, who will not grieve nor revile the teacher, to whom the sacred knowledge can be revealed as to a keeper of one's gem" [cf. Manu, ii, 109 (ten persons eligible for Vedic instruction), 112–15].

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**Invocations.** The student is then committed to the charge of the gods with prayers varying also with his caste. The Brāhmaṇa is committed for the sake of great learning, the Kshatriya for great royalty, and the Vaiśya for great wealth [*Hiraṇya.* i, 1, 4, 8]. According to Śāṅkhāyana [ii, 2, 13–14], "those who are desirous of a host of adherents should be initiated with the verse: 'Thee, the Lord of Hosts' [*Ṛv.*, ii, 23, 1]," and "warriors, with the verse: 'Come here, do not come to harm'" [*Ṛv.*, viii, 20, 1].

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**Prayers.** Some of the prayers used in the performance of the ceremony indicate the objects of education. They are both religious and secular and such as are necessary for the harmonious development of a man's nature. The pupil prays to the gods for insight, offspring, splendour, strength, and vigour [*Āśval.*, i, 21, 4]. The gods invoked are named Bhaga, Yama, Aryamā, and Savitṛi. Savitṛi was invoked to ward off evils like disease and death [ib., *Gṛ. S.*, i, 20, 6 (*Deva Savitaresha Te Brahma-chārī sa mā mṛitaḥ*)], In the Śāṅkhāyana [ii, 3, 1] he prays for long life, offspring, and strength, increase of wealth, mastery of all the Vedas, fame, and bliss. Pāraskara [ii, 4, 3] makes him worship Agni with the following poetic prayer: "To Agni have I brought a piece of wood. As thou, Agni, art inflamed by wood, thus am I inflamed by life, insight, vigour, offspring, cattle, holy lustre." Hiraṇyakeśin [i, 2, 5, 13] has the prayer for offspring, valiant sons, splendour, wealth, wisdom, and pupils (for the student must develop into a teacher and help forward the spread of learning). There is also a special prayer for intelligence [i, 2, 6, 4]. He has also a similar prayer to Agni: "As thou art inflamed, Agni, through that piece of wood, thus inflame me through wisdom, insight, offspring, cattle, holy lustre, and through the enjoyment of food" [i, 2, 7, 2].

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**'Aśmārohaṇa.'** After prayers came the ceremony of the Brahmachārī being made to stand on stone as a symbol of steadfastness at study [*Mānava Gṛ. S.*, i, 22, 12], or strength and invincibility [*Bhāradvāja Gṛ. S.*, i, 8].

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**Admission.** The teacher's formal acceptance of the pupil is made with the following words which indicate the sacred and inviolable character of the spiritual bond that connected them: "Thy heart shall dwell in my heart; my mind thou shalt follow with thy mind; in my word thou shalt rejoice with all thy heart; to me alone thou shalt adhere; in me thy thoughts shall dwell; upon me thy veneration shall be bent; when I speak thou shalt be silent.” [*Hiraṇya.* i, 2, 5, 11; *Śāṅkh.*, ii, 4, 1; *Pārask.*, i, 8, 8 (formula for marriage); *Āśval.*, i, 21, 7.] The pupil was also formally asked the question, “Whose Brahmachārī art thou?” When he answered, “Thine,” the preceptor stated: “Thou art the Brahmachārī of Indra, Agni is the Āchārya, I am thy Āchārya” [*Pārask. Gr. S.*, ii, 3]. He also stated that he was admitting him as a pupil under god Savitṛi [*Āśva. Gr. S.*, i, 20, 4].

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**Admonition.** The ceremony of initiation concludes with the following charge laid upon the Brahmachārin: “A Brahamachārin art thou! Drink water. Do the service. Do not sleep in the day-time. Devoted to the teacher, study the Veda” [*Āśval.*, i, 22, 2]. The Śāṅkhāyana [ii, 4, 5] adds the further duty—“Put on fuel” [cf. also *Pārask.*, ii, 3, 2; *Gobhila*, ii, 10, 34; *Hiraṇya.* i, 2, 5, 11].

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**The first observance of Brahmacharya: Sāvitrī Vrata.** The Brahmachārī now starts on his career by taking on the *Sāvītrī Vrata* as a part of the Upanayana ceremony. Brahmacharya literally means “attendance on *Brahma* or Veda” and involves the observances which the student has to keep through certain periods of time before the different Vedic texts which he has to learn can be taught him. Thus the study of the Veda is opened by the Sāvitrī [cf. *Śatap. Br.*, xi, 5, 4, 6 f.]. The Brāhmaṇa student is to be taught the Gāyatrī which belongs to Viśvāmitra [*Ṛv.*, iii, 62, 10]; the Kshatriya is to be taught the Trishṭubh which is a verse ascribed to Hiraṇyastūpa [*Ṛv.*, i, 35, 2]¹; the Vaiśya is to be taught the Jagatī which is a verse ascribed to Vāmadeva [*Ṛv.*, iv, 40, 5] or to Hiraṇyastūpa [*Ṛv.*, i, 35, 9].² The Sāvitrī Vrata which the student observes as a preparation for that instruction might last for one year or three days or the Sāvitrī can be taught immediately after the initiation [*Śāṅkh.*, ii, 5, 1-6; 7, 11]. According to Pāraskara [ii, 4, 3, 6], the Sāvitrī Vrata may last for one year, six months, twenty-four days, twelve days, six days, or three days. [For teaching the Sāvitrī, cf. Gobhila, ii, 10, 39; *Hiraṇya.*, i, 2, 6, 11; *Āp. Gr.*, iv, 11, 9 f.; *Kh.*, ii, 4, 20; *Āśv.*, i, 21, 5 f.; 22, 29.] The normal period set for this, the first of the Brahmacharin's *vratas* or special observances, seems to have been three days. During this time, the student had to live on special food, which was not to be either pungent or saline, or milk, according to Khādira [ii, 4, 32], and to beg that food, firstly, of his mother, and "of two other women friends or of as many as there are in the neighbourhood" [Gobhila, ii, 10, 43] or "other houses where they are kindly disposed towards him" [*Hiraṇya.*, i, 2, 7, 17], or of "a woman who won't refuse" [*Śāṅkh.*, ii, 6, 6; *Āśval.*, i, 22, 7], or "from three women who will not refuse or from six, twelve, or an indefinite number" [*Pārask.*, ii, 5, 5, 6]. Manu [ii, 50] makes the pupil beg food first of his mother, then of his sister, then of his own maternal aunt and then of a female who will not disgrace him by a refusal. The alms were to be collected in a bowl given to the pupil by his teacher [*Hiraṇya.*, i, 2, 7, 14].

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¹ Or *Ṛv.*, i, 35, 9, according to Nārāyaṇa commenting on Śāṅkhāyana Gr. S., ii, 5.

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² Or *Ṛv.*, v, 81, 2, according to Medhātithi (on Manu, ii, 38), Śātātapa (cited by Vīramitrodaya) and Laugākshi (cited by Aparārka on Yājña, i, 15); or *Ṛv.*, v, 81, 1, according to *Āśva. Gr. S.*, iii, 7 and *Vārāha. Gṛ S.*, 6.

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'Medhajanana.' After three days' observance of the Sāvitrī Vrata, the ceremony of Upanayana is ended by the performance of the *Medhājanana* rite whereby the gods are invoked for the development of the Brahmachārī's mental powers [*Bhāradvāja Gr. S.*, i, 10]. Then Brahmacharya or studentship formally begins under prescribed conditions governing the life and studies of the pupil dwelling in his teacher's house.

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Food. The restrictions of Upanayana ceremony as regards *food* are withdrawn, and the student is allowed to eat pungent and saline food and vegetables [*Hiraṇya.*, i, 2, 9, 9]. Manu forbids the taking of honey, meat, substances used for flavouring food and substances turned acid [ii, 177; cf. *Baudh.*, i, 3, 23-4; *Pārask.*, ii, 5, 12; *Gobhila*, iii, 117, 19, 23]. According to Āpastamba, also, the Brahmachārin shall not eat food offered at a sacrifice nor pungent condiments, salt, honey, or meat [i, 1, 2, 22, 23; i, 1, 4, 6]. Āpastamba, appealing to the Mīmāṁsists, combats the doctrine implied in the injunctions of Baudhāyana that pupils may eat forbidden food, such as honey, meat, and pungent condiments, if it is given to them as leavings by their teacher. For the general rule is that students should eat the fragments of food given to them by their teachers and to obey their teachers except when ordered to commit crimes which cause loss of caste and such crimes, according to Baudhāyana, did not include eating forbidden food. Gautama [ii, 13], prohibits honey and meat. The *hour* of eating is also prescribed: it is the fourth, six, or eighth hour of the day [Vasishṭha, vii, 8]. The *manner* of eating is thus laid down: "he shall eat in silence, contented and without greed" after receiving permission to eat from his teacher [*Gautama*, ii, 39, 41]. Manu prescribes eating with a concentrated mind, a pleased face, and without contempt, after meditating on the food as the sustainer of life and forbids eating between the two meal-times, over-eating, and giving to any man the food that is left [ii, 53–7; cf. *Baudh.*, ii, 3, 5, 21; ii, 12, 7, 9; ii, 13, 11; *Gaut.*, ix, 59 *Vishṇu*, lxviii, 34–5; 42–3; 48; *Vasishṭha*, iii, 69; *Āp.*, ii, 1, 2, 3]. Āpastamba requires the pupil to clean his dish after he has eaten [i, 3, 36].

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Though there is restriction as to food and drink for the Brahmachārī, there was no restriction as to quantity of these he should consume. He could take as much nourishment as was necessary for his health. "The *Muni* (of the fourth *āśrama*) should restrict his food to only eight mouthfuls; the Hermit (of the third *āśrama*) to sixteen mouthfuls; the Householder to thirty-two; but there was no limit for a Brahmachārī." This rule is based on that of health which requires that the quantity of food must be largest for youths and decrease with age. The same text forbids the penance of fasting for both a Brahmachārī and a Gṛihastha [*Baudhāyana*, ii, 7, 31–3; *Smṛitichandrikā*, p. 114].

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**Begging.** One of the standing duties of the Brahmachārin was to go out *begging* for alms. Generally, the women were to be addressed in prescribed terms varying according to the caste of the begging student. A Brahmin is to use the word "Lady", at the beginning, a Kshatriya, in the middle, and a Vaiśya, at the end, of the sentence prescribed for asking for alms [*Pārask.*, ii, 5, 2–4; *Āpastamba*, i, 1, 3, 28–30]. The student had to go out for begging twice a-day, in the morning and evening [*Āp.*, i, 1, 3, 25; *Āśval.*, i, 22, 4]. According to *Gopatha Brāhmaṇa* [i, 2, 1–8], and Baudhāyana-Dharma-sūtra [i, 2, 52], a pupil must perform a prescribed penance for his omission to beg at least once a week. This rule indicates (1) that begging was enjoined mainly as a measure of discipline for its educative value, and (2) that it was not a compulsory daily duty. According to Āpastamba [ib.] the student may beg of "everybody except low-caste people unfit for association with Āryas and Abhiśastas". Gautama [ii, 35] also forbids the students begging of "abhiśastas and outcastes", while Vishṇu [xxviii, 9] restricts the begging to "the houses of virtuous persons, excepting those of the Guru or his relatives". Where, however, no alms could be obtained by aforesaid means, the student might beg in his own house, or in that of his teacher or his relations [Gautama, ii, 37). According to Manu, the proper persons to be approached for alms are those who are not deficient in the knowledge of the Veda and in performing sacrifices, and who are noted for adhering to their lawful occupations [ii, 183-5; also Baudhāyana, i, 2, 3, 18]. Manu also condemns a student as guilty of theft if he gathers by begging more food than he needs and sells the surplus [cited in Vīramitrodaya, *p.* 486]. Begging was also not permitted to a Snātaka [*Samāvṛittasya bhikshā aśuchikarā* (Baudhāyana, ii, 1, 63)]. The student shall not beg for his own sake alone [*Āp.*, i, 1, 3, 35], but submit the proceeds of his begging to his teacher [ib., 31; *Āśv.*, i, 22, 10; *Vasishṭha*, vii, 14; *Vishṇu*, xxviii, 10]. If the proceeds are other than food, such as cattle or fuel, they are to be offered to the teacher as rewards given to priests for the performance of a sacrifice [*Āp.*, i, 1, 4, 3]. Baudhāyana [i, 2, 4, 7] points out the virtues of begging, viz. that by this the student makes himself poor and humble in spirit. It was thus valued as a method of moral discipline.

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**Service to Teacher.** The life of the student was regulated on the principle that he must do what is pleasing and serviceable to his teacher [Gautama, ii, 30; Vishṇu, xxviii, 7]. One text sums up the position by stating that the pupil is to serve his teacher as a son, supplicant, or slave (Putravat dāsavat arthivat cha anucharatā tvayā). Charaka [Vimānasthāna, viii, 4] states that "the pupil should serve his teacher as he serves Agni, Deva, King, Father, and Master, with steady devotion" As Āpastamba puts it more definitely, the pupil shall "assist his teacher daily by acts tending to the acquisition of spiritual merit and of wealth" [i, 1, 4, 24]. The former class of acts will comprise collecting sacred fuel, kuśa grass, cow-dung, earth, and flowers for sacrifice, as also fetching a pot full of water, while the latter class implies gathering fuel for cooking, begging alms, etc. [Manu, ii, 182].

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But this relationship of service must always rest on a moral foundation. If the teacher goes wrong, the pupil should first complain to him in private [Pramādān āchāryasya rahasi bodhayet (Āpastamba, i, 2, 6, 13)]. Gautama terminates this relationship where the teacher indulges in adharma or sinful conduct [iii, 1, 15].

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**Fetching Water, Flower, Fuel : Tending Fire.** Thus the next important class of duties after begging is that connected with fuel and fire. The pupil is to fetch fire-wood out of the forest without damaging the trees [*Pārask.*, ii, 5, 9] and before sunset [*Āp.*, i, 1, 4, 15]. The fuel thus fetched daily from the forest is to be placed on the floor of the teacher’s house. After having kindled the fire, and swept the ground around the altar the pupil is to place the sacred fuel on the fire every morning and evening. He shall sweep the place around the fire after it has been made to burn (by the addition of fuel) with his hand, and not with the broom (of Kuśa grass) but before adding the fuel, he is free to use the broom at his pleasure [*ib.*, 16–19].

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Besides fetching fuel and tending the fire twice daily, the pupil was to fetch water in a vessel for the use of his teacher both in the morning and evening [*ib.*, 13].

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Thus the standing duties to be performed by the student in the interests of his teacher and of his own discipline and moral life were begging, fetching fuel, water, and flowers and other articles for sacrifice, and tending the sacred fire. These duties were more of the nature of services rendered to the teacher, but there were others more directly connected with his own life. We have already considered the regulations prescribed regarding the student’s diet. We shall now consider those regarding his dress, the luxuries he must avoid, his general behaviour, the habits he must eschew or cultivate, and the like.

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