Copper in Ancient India c5: Introduction
Copper in Ancient India c5
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Introduction
c5.1
The present monograph is a companion volume to my *Iron in Ancient India* and embodies in an enlarged form a lecture delivered on the 9th April, 1914, at the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, the late Maharaja Kumud Chandra Singha Bahadur of Susanga presiding. The sources from which materials have been drawn have been similar to those which had been utilised in the preparation of my monograph on Indian iron. In addition to medico-chemical Sanskrit texts examined by Dr. P. C. Ray in his *History of Hindu Chemistry*, non-medical Sanskritic, minerological and specially archaeological literature has freely been laid under contribution. I take this opportunity of submitting that archaeological literature, which has hitherto remained unexplored by students of the history of Hindu Chemistry, affords by far the most convincing evidence which can be brought to the solution of a problem relating to the knowledge of metals in ancient India, as archaeological specimens unearthed by the unceasing labours of the Archaeological Department can be seen, tested and handled by the public at large and speak with unerring emphasis of the existence of a prosperous metallic industry in ages gone by. Owing to that reason I have, wherever possible, attempted to collect archaeological evidence to the best of my abilities, and I believe that literary texts when supported by archaeological evidence receive an added confirmation which would convince even the most sceptic.
c5.2
So far as India is concerned, it appears that copper was known in the later Vedic age and specially in the Brahman age, and it does not appear to have been mentioned in the Rig-Veda, the earliest of the Vedas. A copper age intervened in Northern India after the neolithic period, the copper implements being very likely used by the original non-Aryan inhabitants of India, their Aryan conquerors being fully acquainted with the use of iron from the time of their first settlement in the Punjab. Southern India passed directly from the stone to the iron age and no bronze age intervened in any part of India as in the case of Europe. As a matter of fact I concur in the assertion that the Eastern origin of the bronze age must definitely be abandoned.
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India abounds in ancient specimens of copper though in this respect the specimens of iron in the shape of pillars and beams still existing in India are certainly more wonderful. Nevertheless a continuous story of the existence of a copper industry may be read from pre-historic times down to the 17th century in the unique find of about 400 pre-historic copper implements in the village of Gunjeria in the Central Provinces to begin with to the remarkable copper bolt in the Asoka-pillar discovered near the frontiers of Nepal, the colossal copper statue of Buddha discoverd in Sultanganj and another such statue 80 feet high witnessed by the Chinese traveller Hiuen-Tsiang near the Nalanda Convent, the brass convent 100 feet at the base constructed by King Silāditya, copper coins, plates, caskets and utensils from pre-Christian time onwards, and lastly the enormous brass guns and cannon of the Moghul period. These varied and numerous archaeological specimens of copper articles of all ages bear eloquent testimony to the existence of a flourishing copper industry in ancient India.
c5.4
As regards the important alloys of copper, India can boast nothing in comparison with the bronze colossus at Rhodes or the bronze statue of Apollo at the Roman Palatine Library; but as regards brass, India can justly claim superior knowledge about its chemistry. Owing to the much earlier discovery of zinc in India the chemistry of brass was much better understood in India than in contemporary Europe, and in fact brass was recognised in India as an alloy and prepared directly from zinc as distinguished from its ores several centuries earlier than in Europe.
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Of the ores of copper known in ancient India and from which copper was extracted, copper pyrites were the most important. Copper glance, malachite and red copper ore were very likely known.
c5.7
Regarding the compounds of copper the sulphide and the sulphate were prepared artificially. The sulphate or blue vitriol as well as green vitriol were known from the 3rd century B.C., thus showing that the difference between the two vitriols was known in India at a time when it was not suspected in Europe. Copper sulphate was prepared by the direct action of sulphuric acid on copper in the 16th century, the reaction being rediscovered in Europe by Glauber in 1648. The sulphide was very likely discoverd by Vrinda (900 A.D.) but certainly by Chakrapāni (1060 A.D.) by the combination of copper and sulphur.
c5.8
I have attempted to identify the location of copper mines which existed in ancient India. References on this subject are however quite casual; nevertheless sites of ancient copper mines have been discovered in many places throughout India. It is to be noted that copper obtained from Nepal was of superior value and there is also evidence to show that in the middle ages copper used to be imported also from foreign countries to supply the demand in India.
c5.9
As regards metallurgy of copper, alchemical literature gives formulae for preparing copper by heating copper pyrites with various organic substances in closed crucibles. Description of the process of manufacture on a large scale as well as of furnaces is however wanting. Fortunately the old indigenous process of manufacturing copper from pyrites still continues in several places in Rajputana, Sikkim and Nepal and from the description of these processes as left by several observers about a century ago we get some idea of the process and furnaces as might have existed in ancient India. The pyrites after proper roasting was heated with charcoal and flux in small blast furnaces, the blast being provided by hand bellows.
c5.10
As references have been profusely given in the body of the monograph no separate bibliography is necessary. The dates of alchemical works such as Rasaratnākar, Rasārnava and Rasaratna-samuchchya are taken here as given by Dr. P. C. Rāy in his History of Hindu Chemistry. I have to thank Dr. Spooner, Superintendent of Archaeology, Bengal, for his permission to photograph the copper bolt of the Rampurwa Asoka-Pillar and also to the authorities of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for permission to reproduce Plates I and VI from their Journal. My acknowledgments are also due to the editor of the Indian Antiquary for reproduction of Plates II, III, IV from the Indian Antiquary of 1905 and 1907.
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RAJSHAHI, August, 1917.
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P. NEOGI.