Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

Copper in Ancient India c6: Chapter I. Earliest Times

Copper in Ancient India c6

Language
English

Contents

Chapter I. Earliest Times

The Vedic Age (Circa 2000 B.C.—1000 B.C.)

c6.s1.1

In the author's monograph entitled *Iron in Ancient India* abundant evidence has been put forward to show that iron was known to the Aryan Hindus from the earliest Vedic times, and as time went on, the Hindus perfected their metallurgical skill in working iron to such an extent that they produced the famous Delhi Pillar in the fifth century A.D. the gigantic Orissan beams, the Dhar Pillar, the Mount Abu Pillar and other notable iron monuments in later centuries. During the Moghul rule India was still a rich iron producing country as could easily be learnt from the numerous wrought iron guns and cannon of enormous calibre still existing throughout India. India again undoubtedly produced the steel from which the famous Damascus blades were made in the middle ages. In fact the history of manufacture of iron in ancient India is almost unique in the annals of the world's metallurgy of iron. After the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, however, European iron of a superior quality began gradually to supplant the indigenous product until as at present it wholly dominates the Indian market. But it should be remembered that before that time India was always a rich iron producing country from very early times.

c6.s1.2

It stands to reason that proficiency of a nation in working metals cannot remain confined to one metal, and judging from the present potential minerological richness of the Indian soil it can easily be presumed that the ancient Indians were equally conversant with other metals besides iron. So far as copper is concerned, its manufacture by indigenous people and methods is at present confined to a handful of low-class and aboriginal people here and there in mountain fastnesses, but the main industry passed away several centuries ago, and copper from over-seas now completely dominates the Indian market as in the case of iron. Whilst studying the history of Indian metallurgy of any one of the metals the student or the reader will have to divorce himself from the existing circumstances and transport himself to a remote past, rich in memories of ancient greatness, not only in religion and philosophy but also in science and literature, arts and industries. The author has been convinced of the greatness of the iron industry in ancient and mediaeval India, and as regards copper, though copper is a less useful metal than iron in the sense that its chief use lies principally in coinage and making alloys like brass and bronze, existing literary and archaeological evidence points to the fact that India produced copper from the earliest times down to the seventeenth century. The history of copper is much the same as that of iron, though perhaps India produced iron on a much larger scale than copper possibly owing to geological causes—the history of the rise, development and final extinction of an industry through known and unknown causes inherent to gradually decadent national vitality.

c6.s1.3

We would now proceed to discuss the existing literary and other evidences from the earliest epoch of Aryan civilisation in India viz. the Vedic Age.

c6.s1.4

Copper has not been mentioned in the Rig-veda, the earliest of the Vedas. It has, however, been mentioned in the White Yajurveda as *loha* (from *lohita* or red) in a list of six metals.¹ That the word *loha* here unmistakably refers to copper is shown by the fact that this identical passage has been repeated in the Taittirya Samhitā and also in the Maitriyāni Samhitā with this difference that in the last named Samhitā the word *loha* has been replaced by the word *lohitāyas* or “red metal” meaning evidently copper.

c6.s1.5

¹ हिरण्यं च मे अयसं मे श्यामं च मे लोहं च मे मोसं च मे लपु च मे वज्रं कश्यन्ताम्—White Yajur Veda, XVIII, 13.

c6.s1.6

In the Atharvaveda, the last of the Vedas (being composed at Circa 1000 B.C.), copper continues to be designated as the red metal (*lohita*). In Atharva, XI, 3, 7, *lohitamaya* has been used in contrast to *śyāmamaya* or black metal, evidently iron.¹ In Atharva, VI, 141, 2, a knife made of “red metal” has been mentioned.² In addition to the word *lohita*, the modern equivalent of copper viz. *tāmra* occurs in one passage (Atharva, X, 2, 11)³ which has been translated by Whitney simply as “red” but by Griffiths as “Copper-hued.” It is doubtful if the word really meant copper, as we find that in the Brāhmans composed later than the Atharvaveda copper continues to be designated as *lohita* or *lohitāyas*. The word *tāmra* for copper appears to have become current in the 3rd century B.C. as it occurs in the ancient medical treatises of Charaka and Sushruta as well as in Kautilya’s Arthasāstra.

c6.s1.7

¹ श्या मवोऽस्य नांमानि लोहितमस्य लोहितम्—“Dark metal its flesh, red it blood” (Whitney) Whitney comments that they are doubtless iron and copper respectively.

c6.s1.8

² लोहितेन स्वधितिना—“With the red knife. The red knife is doubtless of copper” (Whitney).

c6.s1.9

³ लोहिनीस्तावधवा—“ruddy, red, dark” (Whitney)—“red, copper-hued and purple” (Griffiths).

The Brāhman Age (Circa 1000 B.C.—500 B.C.)

c6.s2.1

In the Brāhman Age copper continues to be designated, as has already been pointed out, as the “red metal.” The word *lohitāyas* occurs in the Taittiriya Samhitā (IV, 7, 5, 1) as distinguished from *śyāma* or “black metal.”⁴ It also occurs in the Maitrāyni Samhitā (II, 11, 5 and IV, 44) and in the Kathaka Samhitā (XVIII, 10).

c6.s2.2

⁴ हिरण्य च मे &c. with the exception that *lohitāyas* is used in the place of *loha*

c6.s2.3

Its other variant *loha* occurs in the Satapatha Brāhman (XIII, 2, 2, 18). Chhāndogya Upanishad (IV, 17, 7, and VI, 1, 5)¹ and Jaimini Upanishad Brāhman (IV, 1, 4).

c6.s2.4

¹ लवणेन सुवर्णे संदध्यात् सुवर्णेन रजतेन, लघु, लपुपुण सीसं, सीसेन लोहं, लोहेन दारू चर्मणा--Chhāndogya Upanishad, IV, 17, 7. एकेन लोहमनिना सव्वं लोह मयं विज्ञानं स्यात् एकेन नसनिकृन्ततेन सव्वं कार्यवयं विज्ञातस्यात्--Chhāndogya Upanishad, VI, 1, 5.

c6.s2.5

The third variant *lohāyas* is mentioned in the Satapatha Brāhman (V, 4, 1, 2) where it is distinguished from *ayas* and gold. It also occurs in the Jaimini Upanishad Brāhman (III. 17, 3) in contrast to *Karsnāyas* and in the Taittiriya Brāhman (III, 62, 6, 5) in opposition to *Krishnāyas* meaning "black metal" or iron.²

c6.s2.6

² Macdonell & Kieth, *Vedic Index*.

c6.s2.7

In all these passages the sense of copper is extremely clear.

c6.s2.8

From the consideration of the foregoing passage in the Vedas and the Brāhmans relating to copper, it appears that copper was possibly unknown to the early Aryans at the time when the Rigveda was written (circa 2000 B.C.) as it is not mentioned in it. The Rigveda, however, makes copious mention of two metals, gold and iron, in which, it is to be noted, India has been pre-eminently rich in all ages.³ As copper is mentioned once in the White Yajurveda, which was composed later than the Rigveda, it is apparent that it was known at the time when the Yajurveda was written, though from the frequent mention of copper in the Atharvaveda (1000 B.C.) and the Brāhmans it can easily be surmised that copper came into general use amongst the early Aryans at about 1000 B.C.

c6.s2.9

³ As regards Indian iron see author's *Iron in Ancient India*,

c6.s2.10

Enough evidence has been adduced in the author's *Iron in Ancient India* (pp. 3-7) to show that the use of iron and iron weapons was well-known at the time when the Rigveda was composed not to speak of the times of the later Vedas and the Brāhmans. The general use of copper by the first Aryan settlers appears to be distinctly later as it is not mentioned in the earliest of the Vedas. In the Rigveda we find that arrows were "tipped with iron" though we come across with a "copper knife" (p. 7) in the Atharvaveda. It is possible that a copper knife, owing to the peculiar sanctity, attached by the Hindus to copper, might have been used in the sacrifices. Even taking it for granted for the sake of argument that the mention of a copper knife in the Atharvaveda presupposes the use of copper as a material for making weapons, there is hardly anything to be wondered at this, as, so long as the process of hardening iron by quenching or the process of steel-making is not discovered there is not much to choose between malleable iron and copper, though bronze would certainly be more preferable to copper being in point of hardness more approachable to iron. Bronze does not appear to have been known in the Vedic Age¹ and as a matter of fact there was no bronze age in India at all (see bronze). The process of hardening iron by quenching, as well as steel were certainly discovered in India as early as the third century B.C. as both are mentioned in the well-known medical treatise of Sushruta and it is possible that during the Vedic age, in addition to iron, copper might have sometimes been used as a material for making weapons.

c6.s2.11

¹ As both copper and tin are not mentioned in the Rig Veda, Macdonell and Kieth's contention that "ayas" in the Rig Veda means "bronze" is untenable.

The Epic Age (Circa 500 B.C.—200 B.C.)

c6.s3.1

In the Epic Age the knowledge of copper had much advanced and we find copper designated by its modern name tāmra which occurs in the two Epics. The law-giver Manu in his Institutes gives directions for the purification of copper utensils.² Brass and bronze vessels are also referred to in the same passage. Copper finds a place amongst the six metals in the medical work of Sushruta. The other medical treatise Charaka Samhitā composed at the same time mentions brass besides copper and bronze.

c6.s3.2

² ताम्राय; कांस्यैत्त्यानां त्रपुण: सीसकस्य च । योचं यथार्हत्तव्यं काराप्रोद कवारिभि: । Manu, V, 114.

c6.s3.3

Copper is mentioned in many places in Kautilya’s Arthashāstra (3rd century B.C.) which mentions the ores of copper as heavy and green, grey and red in colour probably meaning thereby malachite, pyrites and red copper ore.¹ The Arthashāstra also mentions the use of copper in making alloys and in gold and silver coins and articles. It further describes the process of gilding by “covering the copper article with gold leaf and then polishing its outer surface and sides.”

c6.s3.4

¹ भारिकस्निग्धो मृदुश प्रस्तरधातुर्भूमिभागो वा पिङ्गमलो हरित पाटलो लोहितो वा तास्यधातु--Kautilya’s Arthashāstra, edited by Shama Sāstrī, p. 83.

c6.s3.5

From the accounts left behind by the Greek ambassador Megasthenes who visited India in 302 B.C. we learn how “vessels of Indian copper set with precious stones contributed to the brilliancy of the public ceremonies during Chandra Gupta’s reign.” From Megasthenes’ account of the court of Chandra Gupta and also from the big copper bolt discovered in the Asoka pillar near the frontiers of Nepal we can unhesitatingly say that the output of copper was quite considerable in India as early as the 3rd and 4th centuries B.C. As we have come to historical times we shall not have the necessity of confining ourselves to purely literary evidence but would be able to produce before the readers many ancient specimens of copper from the 3rd century B.C. onwards. Before doing so we would turn our attention to the consideration of an important question, viz., whether there was a copper age in Ancient India. As the question is an important one we would discuss it in a separate chapter.

Linked texts (10)