A History of Agriculture in India v1.c20: Chapter 14. Domestic Animals of the Harappans and Poultry and Fish

A History of Agriculture in India v1.c20

Language: English

v1.c20.s1 Domestic Animals — 83 parts
v1.c20.s2 Domestication of Birds — 31 parts

Chapter 14. Domestic Animals of the Harappans and Poultry and Fish

v1.c20.2

On the seals from Harappan sites are depicted contemporary wild and domesticated animals whose actual remains in the form of bones have also been recovered from the excavations. The inference from the fauna is that the climate was more humid. It provided an environment for the rhinoceros, the tiger, the water-buffalo, the sambhar, and the elephant to thrive, none of which now exists in wild form in the region. Domestic animals included humped bull (*Bos indicus*), Indian buffalo (*Bubalus bubalis*), goat (*Capra hircus*), sheep (*Ovis orientalis*), pig (*Sus scrofa cristatus*), one-humped Indian camel (*Camelus dromedarius*), ass (*Equus asinus*), and at least two types of dog, one referable to the modern pariah-dog, *Canis tenggeranus harappenis*, and the other to a mastiff type. The cat from Harappa (*Felis ocreata r. domestica*) resembled the common European domestic cat in appearance.

v1.c20.3

The domestication of animals is closely linked with agriculture. The development of animal husbandry without crop-raising is impossible. This fact is proved from archaeological excavations which show that animal husbandry and agriculture occur together. The large ruminants, such as cattle and buffalo, possibly came as crop-robbers to the fields of the farmers of the river-civilization of Sind and the Punjab in the pre-Harappan phase. They were captured by the farmers and ended up as domesticated beasts in their pens. The pig is also a crop-robber, and even now it is a pest in sugarcane fields in northern India.

v1.c20.4

There is a close link of vegetation, animals, and man. Domesticated animals provide man with food in the shape of meat and milk and power. Their power value was probably more important than their food value, and the degree of development of an ancient civilization is closely related to the relative efficiency of the domesticated animals available in the country concerned. The Red Indians of North America and the aborigines of Australia had no other animal available to them than the dog, and hence they remained in a primitive hunting stage for centuries when others had gone far ahead. The Indians of Mexico, Central America, Peru and Bolivia domesticated the llama and alpaca for transport and developed a much higher type of civilization, the Maya culture, as compared with their kinsmen in North America. However, there were no draught animals in the Americas, and their agriculture was ploughless. They depended upon the use of spades and digging sticks for the cultivation of crops. Bullocks, asses, elephants, horses and camels are more efficient than llamas and alpacas and hence the Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Indian civilizations were far ahead of the Meso-American civilization. Bullocks, buffaloes, asses, elephants, horses, goats, sheep, and camels have played a great role in the development of civilization in early stages. They provided animal power which supplemented the human muscle power, thus relieving man of drudgery, and providing him with surplus food, on account of which a leisure class arose which could think of higher things.

v1.c20.5

Mammals domesticated for draught, milk and meat are cattle, gaur, and the buffalo.

Domestic Animals

v1.c20.s1.1

Seals and clay toys from Mohenjo-daro depict a variety of domesticated cattle. It is noteworthy that only bulls are depicted on the seals and not cows. Out of these, the most prominent is a zebu, with an enormous dewlap with folds (Fig. 94, middle row, left). Out of the present-day breeds, it resembles the Kankrej, which is found in the Tharparkar District in Sind, and also in Gujarat (Fig. 95, bottom). Kankrej is the heaviest of Indian breeds, with a powerful body, a broad chest, and a well-developed hump. The skin of the males is silver grey, iron grey or even black. The dewlap is well developed and the sheath is pendulous. The forehead is broad, and horns are curved and covered with skin to a comparatively higher point. Bullocks are powerful draught animals, and cows are fairly good milkers. A silver grey Kankrej bull and a cow from Kathiawar are shown in Fig. 96. The animals are grey and their horns are enormous. It is interesting to note the survival of an ancient breed from Mohenjo-daro down to the present in India and Pakistan.

v1.c20.s1.2

There is a toy depicting a humped bull, with short thick horns (Fig. 94, bottom row, middle). It resembles the Red Sindhi bull (Fig. 99, top).

v1.c20.s1.3

There is a humpless bull with moderately curved horns and a strong neck with folds (Fig. 94, top row, left). It greatly resembles the gaur (*Bos gaurus*), which is even now found in the jungles of Madhya Pradesh, north of the Narmada River (Fig. 97, bottom). It has no dewlap. The bull shown in the seal also resembles the Maithon (Mithun) found in Assam, which does not have a hump or a dewlap.

v1.c20.s1.4

There is another variety of a humpless bull, usually represented with a single horn which has been unfortunately nicknamed unicorn (Fig. 94, middle row, centre right). There are many seals which show this breed. In fact, 312 seals out of 387 excavated from Mohenjo-daro in the first exploration depict this animal. The largest number of seals from Lothal have the image of the urus bull. Only a few have the figure of the Kankrej zebu bull. Rao states, "Whereas no figure of cow was found at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro two specimens were recovered from Lothal. One of them has short forward-projecting horns and a low hump. The udders and genital organs are clearly indicated.'¹ Seals from Surkotada in Gujarat and Kalibangan in Rajasthan also bear the image of this animal. This indicates that it was a favourite animal of the Harappans and was found in Sind, Gujarat and Rajasthan. The head is drawn in a profile; that is why one horn is shown. In some of the composite figures, two horns are shown. This animal has cloth-covering or a *jhul* on its back, and in front of it is an elaborate type of manger. These are some indications of domestication. It resembles *Bos primigenius*, or aurochs, as depicted in the caves of Lascaux, south-western France. The horns are forward-pointing, with tips slightly turned upwards. The aurochs from Pleistocene onwards was found in Europe, North Africa, Egypt, Palestine, Mesopotamia, Iran and Baluchistan. The European domesticated cattle are the descendants of *Bos primigenius*. Its domestication was undertaken before 4000 B.C. 'In the Siwaliks a *Bos acutifrons* occurs, which Pilgrim regards as the possible ancestor of the Pleistocene wild cattle, i.e. of both *Bos namadicus* of India and of *Bos primigenius* of Europe. An Asiatic origin of the group, according to Zeuner, is altogether likely since the aurochs is either very rare or altogether absent in the lower Pleistocene of Europe. It became fairly frequent in the Great Interglacial, but not abundant until after the end of the Ice Age. With no ancestral forms known from anywhere in Europe, this increase in the frequency of wild cattle looks very much like an invasion from elsewhere, attempted repeatedly and succeeding finally in the Holocene. By this time the species had spread as far west as Spain and Morocco and eastwards to China and Siberia'.²

v1.c20.s1.5

¹ Rao, S.R. *Lothal and the Indus Civilization*, p. 50

v1.c20.s1.6

² Zeuner, F.E. *A History of Domesticated Animals*, p. 203

v1.c20.s1.7

The aurochs became extinct in Europe in the middle of the nineteenth century. Zeuner has reproduced a picture of an auroch published in 1827 (Fig. 98, *bottom*). When we compare the aurochs from the caves of Lascaux, the seal of the so-called unicorn from Mohenjo-daro and the picture of the last surviving aurochs, no doubt is left that the bull shown in seals from Mohenjo-daro and other Harappan sites also represents aurochs (*Bos primigenius*).

v1.c20.s1.8

The zebu is a characteristically Indian breed characterized by a prominent hump on the shoulder, a long face, upright horns, drooping ears, small brow-ridges, a dewlap and slender legs. Its colour varies from white to grey and black. The hump of the zebu is an enlarged muscle and not just a store of fat. The hump is a genetically fixed character already well developed in the calf at birth. Apart from the hump, in colour, voice and habits the zebu differs greatly from European cattle. Possibly, the zebu is a direct descendant of *Bos namadicus*, which was found wild in India throughout the Pleistocene.

v1.c20.s1.9

The earliest representation of zebu is in a rough figurine from the earlier Halafian period at Arpachiyah in northern Mesopotamia which dates back to 4500 B.C. Zeuner remarks, "That the oldest find should be Mesopotamian may be regarded as an archaeological accident, for subsequent ones point to India, and indeed have been regarded as evidence for Indian contacts with the Mesopotamian civilization."³

v1.c20.s1.10

At Mundigak, in Afghanistan, humped bull figurines occur from period I onwards. Allchin remark that these figurines provide the earliest evidence so far of the domestication of *Bos indicus*.⁴

v1.c20.s1.11

⁴ Allchin, R. and B. *The Birth of Indian Civilization*, p. 258

v1.c20.s1.12

This also indicates that the domestication of zebu in Afghanistan, Sind and Baluchistan must have taken place as early as 4000 B.C.

v1.c20.s1.13

Apart from seals, bones of cattle have been found in Mohenjo-daro. The presence of the bones of calves indicates that their flesh was eaten by the people of Mohenjo-daro.

v1.c20.s1.14

"The very considerable frequency with which the remains of *Bos indicus* have been met with during the excavations indicates that the inhabitants of Mohenjo-daro at one stage or other of their history maintained large herds of this animal," observes Marshall. "In quite a large number of cases the teeth indicate that the animal from which they were derived was young; for instance, in the case of the third molars there has, in many cases, been but little wearing down of the tooth surface, while in a few instances this tooth has only just been erupted. This would appear to indicate that the inhabitants slaughtered these animals for food, and it is possible that this may also provide the explanation of the total absence in the collection of any complete long bone belonging to this species; probably such bones were split in order to obtain the marrow."⁵

v1.c20.s1.15

⁵ Marshall, J. *Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization*, Vol. II, p. 669

v1.c20.s1.16

It seems that the zebu cattle were originally domesticated in the mountainous regions of the Baluchistan and Afghanistan. Zebu cattle have aversion for water and never bathe in ponds, whereas the buffalo takes delight in wallowing in mud and swimming in ponds. The preference of the zebu for dry land and its aversion for water indicates its origin in a dry mountainous environment.

v1.c20.s1.17

The domestication of zebu cattle in Afghanistan, Baluchistan and Sind was a most important step taken by man in the development of agriculture. The zebus can withstand high temperature, and are resistant to many tropical diseases. They have played a useful role in the development of the cattle population in the tropical areas of China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Africa, and recently in southern United States of America, Australia and Brazil (Fig. 93). In India alone there are 178.³ million zebu cattle. They provide draught for ploughing land, and for carting produce. They provide milk and meat for consumption of human beings. Their hides were used in the past for manufacturing shields as well as shoes. Their dung and urine are used as manure to fertilize the crops. As beasts of burden and of traction, they still play an important role in the agriculture of Asia. In the pre-agricultural phase, and in early agriculture, reliance was entirely on human muscle-power. The cattle relieved human beings of a great drudgery.

v1.c20.s1.18

³ Zeuner, F.E. *A History of Domesticated Animals*, p. 239

v1.c20.s1.19

DISTRIBUTION OF ZEBU CATTLE IN THE WORLD

v1.c20.s1.20

Fig. 93. Distribution of zebu cattle in the world. The home of the zebu cattle is the Indian subcontinent. It has been recently introduced into Brazil and the southern USA

v1.c20.s1.21

The Buffalo (*Bubalus bubalis*). Buffaloes belong to the order Artiodactyla, suborder Ruminantia, family Bovidae, tribe Bovini. Within the Bovini, Bohlken (1958) distinguishes three groups—Bovina (cattle), Bubalina (Asian buffalo) and Syncerina (African buffalo)—among which no interbreeding appears to be possible. The domestic buffalo was given the specific name *bubalis* by Linnaeus. According to Bohlken’s terminology, it should be called *Bubalus arnee forma bubalis*.

v1.c20.s1.22

The Indian buffalo is thinly haired; it is dark ashy grey, almost black. The legs are thick and short. It is of heavy build, and has large hoofs, a short tail, a large wide muzzle, and a long head, which is carried low. The neck is short and thick, with the head set at the same level as the back and at a peculiar angle, indicating its water-dwelling habit. The forehead is flat, and the large and angulated horns are black. Two distinct types of horns—the one sharply and regularly curved, and the other extending straight outwards for a considerable distance—exist, these representing either distinct local races or dimorphic phases of the species. Horns are angular in section. A pale-brown variety occurs in Assam.

v1.c20.s1.23

The buffalo generally reaches maturity at about three years, calves for the first time at about four years, and breeds up to 16 or 20 years of age, usually at intervals of about 16 to 18 months. The gestation period is 10½ months. The body temperature of the buffalo is normally lower than that of cattle and this lower temperature may account for its heat-tolerance coefficient.

v1.c20.s1.24

According to Baini Prashad, the Indian buffalo is the lineal descendant of the gigantic *Bubalus palaeindicus* of the Pliocene, fossils of which have been recovered from the gravels of the Narmada and the topmost beds of the Siwaliks. With the remains of the extinct buffalo, *Bubalus palaeindicus*, stone implements were also found in the valleys of the Godavari and the Narmada by Rutimeyer, which shows that it was a contemporary of man.

v1.c20.s1.25

In the Pleistocene Period, the genus *Bubalus* was widely distributed in Europe and southern Asia, as is evident from skeletal remains from some parts of Europe. When the climate became drier, it was restricted to India, Indochina and some of the south-east Asian islands. The European buffalo of today was reintroduced from the East in its domesticated form.

v1.c20.s1.26

According to Duerst, *Bubalus palaeindicus* was hunted by ancient inhabitants of Iran and Mesopotamia about 3800 B.C., when Sargon ruled over Accad.

v1.c20.s1.27

There are now three wild buffalo species in Asia which have appeared sufficiently distinct to attract individual names. These are the anoa of Celebes, the tamarao of Mindoro and the *arni* or Indian wild buffalo. Only the last has been domesticated. Duerst regards the anoa buffalo of Celebes, *Bos depressicornis*, as the most primitive buffalo which is connected with the Indian buffalo through the Mindoro buffalo, *Bos mindorensis*, of the Philippines. It is probable that the local varieties of buffalo were domesticated in different places where they were found. The present restriction of the Indian buffalo to the Oriental region is probably due to desiccation of north-western Asia.

v1.c20.s1.28

The Indian wild buffalo, *Bubalus arnee*, receives its specific name from the Hindi *arni*, of which the masculine is *arna*. Its present distribution is northern India, and possibly also Sri Lanka and the region of Indochina. The *arni* lives in large herds in thick reeds, rushes or grass jungles; they are closely bound to water (Fig. 101) and spend much of the day in wallows⁸.

v1.c20.s1.29

⁸ Mason, I.L. Species, Types and Breeds, in *The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo* (Ed. W.R. Cockrill), pp. 1, 3, 5

v1.c20.s1.30

As late as the beginning of the nineteenth century, wild buffaloes were common in the marshes and jungles of the Indian subcontinent, east of longitude 80° E, and north of the Godavari River, but excluding the Ganges plain itself. Their number has now been reduced by the spread of cultivation and consequent habitat destruction, together with hunting and disease, to some 1,400 in six isolated areas, chiefly reserves in Assam, a few herds in the Kosi River area of Nepal, and 400-500 in the Bastar District of southern Madhya Pradesh and the Koraput District of Orissa (Daniel and Grubh, 1966).

v1.c20.s1.31

The wild buffalo is a very large animal, standing 150-170 cm at the shoulders, and it can reach 200 cm and a weight of nearly 1,000 kg. It is grey black, dark grey or dark brown; usually the muzzle and the legs below the knee are light grey, and there are distinctive white or grey chevron markings on the neck and above the brisket. The horns are very large and widely separated from each other at the base. They leave the skull sideways, forming an angle of about 130° with each other, and curve round in the shape of a sickle or in a crescent, with the tips pointing inwards (Fig. 101). There used to be a variety in Assam with long straight horns curved only at the tip (Fig. 104). The horns diverge little from the plane of the face; those of the female are more slender and often longer than those of the male. They average over 60 cm in length.⁷

v1.c20.s1.32

⁷ Mason, I.L. Species Types and Breeds, in *The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo* (Ed. W.R. Cockrill) pp. 4, 5

v1.c20.s1.33

The wild buffalo is found in Assam, Sunderbans, the Himalayan Tarai, Orissa and the Raipur District of Madhya Pradesh and in Sri Lanka. Blanford suspects that those from Sri Lanka are not truly wild, and are descendants of escaped animals. However, the long horns of the wild buffaloes of Assam indicate their authenticity as truly wild animals (Figs 101, 104). In a bronze toy showing a buffalo on wheels, from Daimabad, Ahmednagar District, Maharashtra, *c.* 1300 B.C., the horns retain their primitive character (Fig. 103). Long horns are still found in some of the inferior breeds, e.g. the Nagpuri buffalo (Fig. 102). The Surti buffalo also has long, spreading, thick horns which is, indeed, a primitive character (Fig. 100, *top*). The best breed of buffalo is the Murrah of the Punjab and Haryana, with curled horns and a capacious udder (Fig. 100, *bottom*).

v1.c20.s1.34

There are two well-defined ecological types of buffalo, namely swamp buffalo and the river buffalo. The swamp buffalo is the denizen of marshland, where it wallows in the mud and feeds on coarse marsh grass and reeds. These buffaloes sink up to their bellies in muddy water and cover their bodies with mud as a protection against sun and flies. They are also nocturnal. The river-type buffalo is the one found throughout India and Pakistan and prefers clean water—rivers, irrigation canals and ponds—in which to wallow. This type has been specially developed for milk production and is docile and easily managed. All the best milch breeds of India and Pakistan, e.g. Murrah and Nili, are river type.

v1.c20.s1.35

Baini Prashad is of the opinion that one of the centres, if not the sole centre, of domestication of the buffalo in India was the Sind Valley. He has described a horn and some jaw-bones of the Indian buffalo from Harappa. The bones of the buffalo are less common than those of cattle, and at Mohenjo-daro appeared only in the upper levels. There are eight seals on which the buffalo is depicted. Out of these, a typical seal is shown in Fig. 94 (top row, right). The animal has long horns, as in the wild buffalo from Assam. From this evidence it seems that the Punjab and Sind are the home of the early domesticated buffalo.

v1.c20.s1.36

Even at present the buffalo is more common than the cow in the Punjab and is valued more on account of its higher milk yield and its greater fat content which is more suitable for the preparation of ghee. It is a more efficient user of rough forage than cattle. Not being sacred, a certain amount of culling is possible. Its love for water betrays its original home in the swampy jungles of the Punjab and Sind. Even now in its wild form it is never found in the mountains. The buffalo has played an important role in the economy of ancient India, as the female gives plenty of milk and the male is ideal for transport and for ploughing muddy rice fields.

v1.c20.s1.37

The Indian buffalo reached Indo-china, China and Japan quite early. In muddy rice fields of these countries, it found an ideal environment. Its westward spread was, however, slow. From Sind it reached Iran and Mesopotamia. The first record of it in the Jordan Valley was A.D. 723. From Iran, the buffalo reached southern Russia and the Balkan countries. It seems likely that the buffaloes were brought back to their European homes by the Crusaders. About A.D. 1200, Bulgaria and Macedonia had buffaloes in plenty. From Bulgaria they spread to Italy, and Hungary, which marks their northernmost outpost. At the end of the thirteenth century, buffaloes were present in the Pontine marshes of Italy. Buffalo population is steadily increasing. Recently, it has found a new home in northern Australia, southern USA, and the Amazon Valley of South America.

v1.c20.s1.38

Out of the total world population of buffaloes (1971), which has been estimated at 140 million, India has 57.4 million, China 30 million and Pakistan 12.1 million. Out of the Indian breeds, the best is the Murrah (Fig. 100, bottom). Its breeding area is Haryana. The skin and the hair are black in Murrah, and the horns are curled into a spiral. The ears are small, thin and pendulous; the legs are short and straight, with black hoofs. The barrel is massive and well developed. The udder is well developed with a prominent zigzag milk vein. The teats are long and well spaced. The females weigh up to 900 kg.

v1.c20.s1.39

Another good breed is Nili-Ravi found in the Montgomery and Multan districts of the Punjab (Pakistan), and in the Fazilka Tehsil of the Ferozepur District of the Punjab (India). It resembles the Murrah in the colour of its skin and hair. It has white markings on the forehead, muzzle, legs and tail switch.

v1.c20.s1.40

The Surti buffalo is found in the Charottar tract of Gujarat, which embraces the Kaira District and the adjoining territory of Baroda. Its horns are of medium length and are sickle-shaped. They are flat with transverse corrugations. They are directed downwards and backwards and then turn upwards (Fig. 100, top). The females weigh on the average 540 kg. The buffalo is still the more popular milch animal in India. With selective breeding, better nutrition and improved health control, it has the potential of meeting the protein requirements of India. In India both the buffaloes and cattle coexist. While discussing the possibility of introducing the Indian buffalo into potential areas, Cockrill states, "There are many harsh areas where the only possibility of getting a fair return from the land lies with the water buffalo; such environments include substantial parts of Australia's Top End, the marshes of southern Iraq, and wide expanses of Latin America."⁸

v1.c20.s1.41

⁸ Cockrill, W.R., *The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo*

v1.c20.s1.42

The Elephant (*Elephas maximus indicus*). The mammals domesticated primarily for transport and labour are the elephant, the camel, the horse and the ass.

v1.c20.s1.43

The earliest evidence in support of the use of elephants is to be found on 15 seals from Mohenjo-daro. The elephants shown clearly belong to the Indian species. Similar seals bearing the image of the elephant have been recovered from Harappa.

v1.c20.s1.44

Six out of the 15 Mohenjo-daro elephants distinctly show a line extending down from the back behind the foreleg (Fig. 105). The line indicates a covering cloth or wrapping on the back. It proves that the Indian elephant was domesticated by the time of the Indus Valley civilization (2300-1600 B.C.).

v1.c20.s1.45

The elephant is a five-toed ungulate, ideal for transporting and soldiering in swampy jungles where horses and mules are rendered ineffective. It eats the leaves of bamboos, plantains, *pipal* (*Ficus religiosa*), banyan (*Ficus benghalensis*), and of various species of reeds (e.g. *Typha*) which flourish in swamps. Its principal food is leaves of rushes and reeds. As there are few swamps in northern India and Pakistan, reeds, rushes and bamboos have vanished, and with them has vanished the elephant. It may be noted that whereas even a petty land-owner can keep an elephant in Bihar and Bengal, as its natural food is so abundant around jheels in these moist regions, it is difficult even for a raja to keep one in the Punjab. The elephant served for transport of goods in civil life, and as a tank in battles. It continued to hold its sway for long in northern India and slowly made way for the more active horse, which is less expensive to keep and is more manoeuvrable. The decline of the elephant must have started from 1600 B.C. when the Aryan horsemen warriors invaded India. The elephant as a weapon of war suffered a major defeat in 326 B.C., when the elephants of Poros fled in confusion before the cavalry charges of the Greeks under Alexander. Since then, its utility in warfare has gradually declined. Its present distribution is restricted to the wet areas of India, namely Kerala, Assam, Bihar, and the tarai zone of the sub-Himalayas.

v1.c20.s1.46

Even now the elephant is used for hauling heavy logs in the forests of Assam and Burma. It is also ridden on ceremonial occasions when pomp and pageantry are necessary for beguiling the crowds.

v1.c20.s1.47

The Camel (*Camelus dromedarius*). Like the horses, the camels as a group are of American origin. North America was the centre of camel evolution throughout the Tertiary. The earliest-known ancestral camels are called *Protylopus*. They lived in the upper Eocene and were no larger than hares. The Oligocene camel, *Poebrotherium*, had the size of a sheep. *Protomeryx* of the lower Miocene, *Protolabis* of the middle Miocene, *Procamelus* of the upper Miocene, and *Pliauchenia* of the Pliocene are further stages, and some of the later American camels were very large. In the Pleistocene of North America, including Alaska, the genus *Camelus* occurred. It is from such a late source that the present-day camels of the Old World appear to have been derived by way of migration to Asia across the Bering Straits, when these were dry land in the late Pliocene or in the early Glaciation times. Only one invasion of camels appears to have succeeded prior to this date; it brought to the Siwaliks of northern India *Camelus sivalensis*, a species which is believed to be not closely related to the living camels, and another smaller species (*C. antiquus*), which Falconer thought was perhaps related to the llama.

v1.c20.s1.48

The Pleistocene wave of true camels spread rapidly to the west along the dry belt of the Northern Hemisphere. It reached eastern Europe, with *C. knoblochi* in Sarepta, southern Russia, and *C. alutensis* in Rumania. They were not able to thrive farther west in Europe because of the unsuitable climate. Whereas these forms are supposed to have been closely related to the two-humped Bactrian camel, the dromedary became separated from the northern branch somewhere in western Asia and spread across Arabia (present in the late Pleistocene of Azraq Oasis, according to Clutton-Brock, 1961) and Palestine (where it was the contemporary of Levelloisian man at Sabha) into northern Africa, reaching even Mauritania in the extreme west. The dromedary had arrived in northern Africa in Acheulian times.”⁹

v1.c20.s1.49

⁹ Zeuner, F.E. *A History of Domesticated Animals*, p. 346

v1.c20.s1.50

The remains of the camel have been discovered from Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. Baini Prashad is of the opinion that the one-humped camel was domesticated by the people of the Indus Valley. Another centre of domestication of the one-humped camel is in northern Africa. The two-humped Bactrian camel is a native of Central Asia, and has been found wild near Lop Nor, and was probably domesticated in that region. A few camel bones of the Indian one-humped race (*Camelus dromedarius*) were found at Anau in Turkestan and in the neolithic Tripolye culture of southern Russia, where they are likely to be approximately contemporary with the Harappan civilization. One of the rare representations of a camel in the prehistoric Asia, states Piggott, comes from a site probably of the second millennium B.C., just over the border of Baluchistan in Persian Makran, at Khurab, where it is modelled in relief on a bronze object.¹⁰

v1.c20.s1.51

¹⁰ Piggott, S. *Prehistoric India*, p. 159

v1.c20.s1.52

The camel was not known to the Aryan invaders, though Herodotus mentions that the camels used by Indians were as swift as horses. This statement suggests that dromedaries, not Bactrians, were in use in the Indus Valley in the fifth century B.C. The country is indeed well suited for this animal.

v1.c20.s1.53

In north-western India and Pakistan, the dromedary is an important beast of burden at present. It is popular in the desert areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana, where it is used for carrying loads. In Haryana it is used for working Persian wheels and also for threshing of sorghum (Fig. 107, *bottom*). With the eyes covered with leather goggles, it would go round and round, turning the wheel with great patience (Fig. 107, *top*).

v1.c20.s1.54

Ass (*Equus asinus asinus*). The ass is the proverbial beast of burden, found all over India. Even in this mechanical age, it is playing a vital role in construction work and in the carrying of earth where canals are dug. It is economical to keep, and the owners after day’s work let it loose to fend for itself. Apart from grass, it eats street wastes and weeds. The upkeep of no other animal is so cheap.

v1.c20.s1.55

There was considerable building activity in the Harappan towns, and one can presume that the ass was used by the Harappans for transporting bricks and other building materials. It may also have been used for riding. In Arab countries, apart from riding, asses are used for the treading of corn and for pulling the plough.

v1.c20.s1.56

Zeuner believes that the ass was first domesticated in the Valley of the Nile. A herd of asses is depicted on a panel in the tomb of Sahure, fifth dynasty, 2650 B.C. The wild asses of northern Africa must have contributed to the domestic stock.

v1.c20.s1.57

In India, the wild ass (*Equus hemionus*) is found in the Rann of Kutch, and in the desert of Bikaner and Jaisalmer (Fig. 106). It also occurs in Sind, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Iran and Kurdistan in Iraq. According to Lydekker, ‘This species, of which there are several local races, has moderately large ears, an erect mane, and a tail covered at the base with short hair which grows longer towards the tip. It is fawn or chestnut-brown above, and white below, the back being marked with a dark-brown, partly white-edged, stripe, running down the middle. Sometimes there is a shoulder-stripe, and sometimes the legs are barred with reddish brown. The shoulder-height is about 48 inches [1.2 metres] and the total length about 80 inches [2 metres], whereas the tail measures about 23 inches [58 centimetres]. The animal is darker at the ear-tips and round the hoofs, and the tip of its tail is blackish. It inhabits desert and semi-desert plains. It is generally found in herds very difficult of approach, and subsists on such vegetation as is to be found in those arid districts. An exceedingly swift animal, it is rarely overtaken by a single horseman, and is generally caught when young by being tired out by a number of horsemen taking up its pursuit one after another.’¹¹ Prater¹² states that wild asses are readily tamed when young.

v1.c20.s1.58

The greatest contribution that the ass has made to animal husbandry, according to Zeuner, is as the progenitor of the mule, a sure-footed animal, which can carry heavy loads on narrow mountain paths. It is known that in earlier times crosses were attempted between hemiones and asses, as well as between horses and asses, but of the several possibilities only one proved really successful, the hybrid between the male ass and the mare, called the mule. The product of the union of a horse with a female ass is called hinny; it is, on the whole, rare. Pohlig found that hinnies were valued as good for riding in Persia, and Pallas mentioned them from China.¹³

v1.c20.s1.59

The bones of asses have been found in the excavations at Harappa, along with those of other domestic animals. It was possibly tamed from the stock of wild asses which are still found in Sind and Baluchistan. The remains of the ass have also been reported from Kalibangan (Rajasthan) and at Rangpur (Gujarat) Period III (1000-800 B.C.). They may be the remains of onagers.

v1.c20.s1.60

The Pig (*Sus scrofa cristatus*). The Indian wild pig (*Sus scrofa cristatus*) is found in the Siwaliks and the tarai area throughout northern India. It lives in tall grass or scanty bush jungle. It is omnivorous and lives on roots, tubers,

v1.c20.s1.61

¹¹Lydekker, R. *Wild Life of the World*, Vol. II, pp. 95, 96 ¹²Prater, S.H. *The Book of Indian Animals*, p. 190 ¹³Zeuner, F.E. *A History of Domesticated Animals*, pp. 382, 383

v1.c20.s1.63

Fig. 94. Seals and toys depicting domesticated animals. Top row, left and centre, humpless bulls; right, a buffalo. Middle row, left, a humped bull of a breed close to Kankrej of Gujarat; centre and right, bulls with forward-projecting horns, resembling urus (Bos primigenius) of Europe. Bottom row, left, a humpless bull; middle, a humped bull (all from Mohenjo-daro; after Mackay and Vats). Bottom row, right, a humped bull from Sector 17, Chandigarh Fig. 95. *Top*, a humped bull depicted in seals from Mohenjo-daro. *Bottom*, a Kankrej bull from Kutch, which resembles the bull depicted on the seal above. This breed is also common in the Tharparkar District of Sind (Pakistan). It is the heaviest breed with curved horns and well-developed dewlap Fig. 96. A Kankrej bull and cow from Kathiawar Fig. 98. Top, a bull of *Bos primigenius* or aurochs of the late Pleistocene, depicted in the cave of Lascaux, south-west France. Middle, the so-called unicorn from Mohenjo-daro also depicts a bull of *Bos primigenius*. It has a manger in front of it, indicating domestication. Bottom, the last surviving specimen of aurochs depicted in a picture published in 1827. The aurochs became extinct in Europe in the middle of the nineteenth century (After Zeuner)

v1.c20.s1.69

Fig. 97. The horned humpless bull depicted on a seal from Mohenjo-daro (top) resembles the gaur, Bos gaurus (below)

v1.c20.s1.75

Fig. 99. Breeds of cattle from Sind. *Top*, a Red Sindhi bull; *bottom*, a Tharparkar bull Fig. 100. *Top*, the Surti buffalo has long and thick horns. *Bottom*, the Murrah buffalo has curled horns and has a high milk yield Fig. 107. *Top*, a camel working a Persian wheel. Blindfolded camels work tirelessly for hours. *Bottom*, camels are also used for threshing sorghum in the desert areas of the Hissar District, Haryana Fig. 108. Fish and fishing in the Harappan period. Top, a fisherman with net. Middle, a fish-toy from Harappa (both after Vats). Bottom, a painting on a pot from Nal, showing Nemachilus-like fish. (After Hora)

v1.c20.s1.78

Fig. 101. The wild buffalo from the Brahmaputra Valley in Assam

v1.c20.s1.79

Fig. 102. Nagpuri buffalo, with its long horns, is very close to the ancestral buffalo

v1.c20.s1.80

Fig. 103. A buffalo, bronze, Chalcolithic period, c. 1300 B.C., Diamabad, Ahmadnagar District, Maharashtra. In the shape of its horns it resembles the wild buffalo below

v1.c20.s1.81

Fig. 104. The Indian wild buffalo is found in Assam. It lives in reeds and rushes close to ponds

v1.c20.s1.82

Fig. 105. Seals from Mohenjo-daro showing elephants. They have a covering of cloth on the back, indicating domestication (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India)

v1.c20.s1.85

Fig. 106. A herd of hemiones (wild asses) in the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat. In the photo below they are galloping to escape human intruders (Courtesy: Chief Conservator of Forests, Gujarat)

v1.c20.s1.91

Fig. 109. Copper fish-hooks from Mohenjo-daro (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India)

v1.c20.s1.92

Fig. 110. Birds on a cage—a terracotta from Mohenjo-daro (Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi)

v1.c20.s1.94

Fig. 111. Domesticated birds from the Harappan period, showing a flying pigeon, a parakeet, a domestic fowl and a chick, a duck, a pigeon, and a woman holding a duck [Figure: Fig. 113. The Indian wild boar (Sus scrofa cristatus) in different moods. Kangra drawing, early eighteenth century (Courtesy: Museum of Evolution of Life, Chandigarh)]

v1.c20.s1.95

Fig. 112. The red jungle fowl (*Gallus gallus*) is the ancestor of modern poultry

v1.c20.s1.96

insects and offal. The male is aggressive and even attacks human-beings. Fig. 113 reproduces a painting in which the wild boar is shown in different moods.

v1.c20.s1.97

All domestic varieties, except the Chinese variety, are the descendants of the Indian wild pig. Pig-breeding originated in India and east Turkestan and spread through the Mediterranean region to Europe. The Chinese variety is the descendant of *Sus vittatus*, found wild in south-east Asia. The European representative is the wild pig (*Sus scrofa*). *Sus scrofa* and *Sus vittatus* are connected by transitional races found in the geographically intermediate areas. The Mediterranean races are intermediate between the European and the eastern Asiatic groups in several respects. It seems that the domesticated pig was repeatedly raised independently from the wild stock all over, wherever it is found.

v1.c20.s1.98

A toy modelled on a wild boar has been recovered from Mohenjo-daro. The remains of pigs were also found at Mohenjo-daro. "The pig was present in large numbers in this area from the very earliest time when Mohenjo-daro was a flourishing city," states Marshall. "But it is impossible to determine whether or not this animal was actually domesticated or even whether it was used as a source of food by the inhabitants in those far-off times. At the present time, pigs are of common occurrence throughout these parts, and it is possible that in the old days they existed in large herds that roamed the countryside searching for food."¹⁴

v1.c20.s1.99

¹⁴ Marshall, J. *Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization*, Vol. II, p. 669

v1.c20.s1.100

The Cat (*Felis ocreata r. domestica*). The cat identified as *Felis ocreata race domestica* is known from the bones recovered from Harappa and is believed to be a descendant of African *F. ocreata*. It was possibly domesticated in Sind and the Punjab. There is very interesting evidence of domesticated cats from Chanhu-daro, a brick over which, when soft and unbaked, a dog had chased a cat, both leaving their characteristic footprints: 'the deep impress of the pads and their spread indicate the speed of both animals...the dog's imprint slightly over-lapping the cat's shows that he came second'. This brick is in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. The cat from Harappa seems to have closely resembled the ordinary European domestic cat.

v1.c20.s1.101

The main use of cats in an agricultural economy is in rodent control. To save the foodgrains from rodents, cats are kept as pets in granaries as well as in grain stores in rural homes in India. Its usefulness as a protector of foodgrains gave a special status to the cat. In India it is a sin to kill a cat. To atone for such a sin, the sinner has to present a golden cat to Brahmins.

v1.c20.s1.102

Fish. With the exception of the carp, all the remains of fish from Mohenjo-daro are from examples of the family Siluridae; of the three genera represented, two, viz. *Rita* and *Wallago*, are the common inhabitants of the large rivers of India, and *Arius* of sea and estuaries. All the three species are excellent food-fish, and it is probable that they were used for food at Mohenjo-daro. *Rita* and *Wallago* were probably caught locally, but it is not likely that a fish such as *Arius*, which is normally confined to estuarine or tidal regions, would penetrate so far upstream as this, and it seems more likely that these fish were caught further down the river in the neighbourhood of Karachi and were dried and brought up to Mohenjo-daro. At present, large quantities of this species are caught, dried, and salted on the west coast of India. The methods employed for catching fish were by means of nets, traps, or hook and line. Where fish are caught by means of nets or traps in such a river as the Indus, turtles (*Trionyx gangeticus*, *Chitra indica*, *Batagur baska*, and *Emyda granosa*) and the gharial (*Gavialis gangeticus*) were also captured in the same manner.

v1.c20.s1.103

A pot from Nal in Baluchistan shows a frieze of *Nemachilus*-like fish (Fig. 108, *bottom*). Hora identified seven genera of fish from Nal ware, viz. *Garra*, *Crossochilus*, *Cyprinon*, *Tor*, *Nemachilus*, *Botia* and *Glyptothorax*.

v1.c20.s1.104

A painted sherd from Harappa shows scenes with human figures. One shows a fisherman carrying two nets suspended from a pole across his shoulders, with a fish and what is probably a turtle near his feet, which rest on a cross-hatched band, presumably the river by which he is walking (Fig. 108, *top*). Apart from evidence from paintings on pottery regarding the methods of fish-catching, fish hooks have also been discovered from Mohenjo-daro (Fig. 109).

Domestication of Birds

v1.c20.s2.1

A number of terracottas have been discovered from Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, which indicate that the Harappans had domesticated a number of birds. There is a terracotta from Mohenjo-daro in the National Museum, New Delhi, in which a woman is holding a duck in a tender manner (Fig. 111). A terracotta toy depicts a duck. Parrots and parakeets are favourite birds in Indian folk-lore and painting. There are numerous paintings of the Mughal and Rajput schools depicting a lady with a parrot. These are representations of Padmini, with her favourite parrot Hiraman.

v1.c20.s2.2

A terracotta from Mohenjo-daro in the National Museum depicts parakeets clinging to a cage (Fig. 110). Parakeets are also depicted in toys (Fig. 111).

v1.c20.s2.3

The blue rock-pigeon (*Calumba livia*) is widely distributed in Asia and Europe. It has become a commensal of man, like the dog, and takes shelter in niches and holes in buildings of all types. A terracotta toy from Harappa depicts a pigeon (Fig. 111).

v1.c20.s2.4

*Domestic fowl* (*Gallus gallus murghi*). The domestic fowl (*Gallus gallus murghi*) originated in India. Its ancestor, the red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), is still found in northern India from Kashmir to Assam and in Madhya Pradesh, Bengal, Orissa, Visakhapatnam and parts of the Godavari District of Andhra Pradesh. It is also found in Burma, Thailand, Malaya, the extreme south of China, Sumatra and Java. It is commonly found in sal forests of the Himalayan tarai. The cock has beautiful plumage, tinged with bright red near the throat and the tail (Fig. 112). The hen is brown, shy and silent.

v1.c20.s2.5

The domestic fowl mates freely with G. gallus and the progeny is fertile. This free mating indicates its link with the wild jungle fowl.

v1.c20.s2.6

The birds which man succeeded in domesticating have certain common traits. The first is a tendency to gregariousness. Wild and solitary birds can be domesticated with great difficulty. On the other hand, the gallinaceous birds are pre-adapted for domestication by their gregarious temperament, the social structure of flocks, their poor powers of flight, and the nature of diet.

v1.c20.s2.7

The earliest evidence of domestication of the fowl is from Mohenjo-daro. There are clay figures in which a hen and a chick are shown figuratively (Fig. 111). A number of avian bones were excavated and they are considerably larger than those of the present-day race of fowls.

v1.c20.s2.8

Among the seals from Mohenjo-daro, Mackay (1938) recognized one with two birds in the position of fighting. He thought that they were Sonnerat cocks, whereas Gandert (1953) regards them as red jungle fowl. There are clay figurines from the same site and they are intended for the fowl. Most of them are fragmentary, but the evidence is cumulative. There is a cock in a position of display, a fragment with a comb and one which Mackay interprets as a hen with a food dish. This would point to breeding in captivity. This is confirmed by Sewell’s study of the bones which are larger than those of the wild bird. A femur from Mohenjo-daro measures 103 mm compared with 69 mm in the case of the wild bird. The femur of a modern table fowl (coll. Institute of Archaeology) measures 115 mm, which shows that the Indus Valley birds had been bred for size. Full domestication had, therefore, taken place, say, by 2000 B.C.

v1.c20.s2.9

At Harappa the fowl is not absent, but there are only two clay figurines that appear to represent a cock and a hen. From Chanhu-daro, clay whistles are known of a shape suggesting small gallinaceous birds.

v1.c20.s2.10

It is conceivable that the Indus Valley people kept the fowl only for sport, and that its breeding for flesh occurred later. When the Aryans invaded India, about the middle of the second millennium, the newcomers learnt to admire the cock. The Rig-Veda does not mention it, but the Atharva-Veda and Yajur-Veda do. He is praised for his courage and pride, and as an indicator of time. By about 1000 B.C., it was forbidden to eat the fowl. Evidently, the bird had assumed a religious significance.¹⁵

v1.c20.s2.11

¹⁵ Zeuner, F.E., A History of Domesticated Animals, p. 448

v1.c20.s2.12

From north-western India, the fowl was taken eastwards and appeared in China towards the fourteenth century B.C.

v1.c20.s2.13

The period of the rapid expansion of fowl-keeping was the first millennium B.C. From north-western India, it evidently reached Iran at an early date. Whereas this possibility is implied in the coin evidence from north-western India and its appearance on the Assyrian seals around the eighth century B.C., there is substantial literary evidence in addition. In the religion of Zoroaster, it plays an important part as the guardian of the good against the evil. With his crowing at waking time, the cock became the symbol of the waking day and thus of the light, in general. Hahn believes that the use of the cock as a ‘time-piece’ arose in Indo-Bactria.

v1.c20.s2.14

From Iran the domestic fowl spread westwards to Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. It is possible that the Medes, who were subject to the Assyrians from the latter part of the ninth century onwards, brought it into the Euphrates-Tigris Basin. A few seals from the eighth century B.C. show the bird. One found at Nimrud dates from 740 to 710 B.C., according to Mallowan.¹⁶

v1.c20.s2.15

¹⁶ Zeuner, F.E. *A History of Domesticated Animals*, p. 445

v1.c20.s2.16

Its first introduction into Greece was from Iran in the eighth century B.C. In the sixth century B.C., it spread over the rest of the Greek world.

v1.c20.s2.17

In the second century B.C., the fowl had become an economically important bird with the Romans. In Britain it appeared in the first century of the Christian Era.

v1.c20.s2.18

The storage of grain and the conservation of live meat in the form of domesticated birds and animals is the major achievement of man in the Neolithic agricultural revolution. ‘Plants capture the radiant energy of the sun and reorganize and store it in the production of seeds and vegetable matter. Animals can utilize the stored energy of plants by eating them and their seeds. By domesticating plants, man gains control over the primary food source for animals. By domesticating animals, he gains control over living organisms that eat plants and greatly concentrate the energy they derive in the form of animal protein. Thus man taps the primary source of food energy by controlling plants, and he assures himself high-protein food by controlling animals.’¹⁷ This led to security in food requirements of man and hence to an increase in his population. Thus, domestication of plants and animals is the foundation of civilization. Only when man is freed from worry of getting food that he starts thinking, and this leads to higher things in life, and the development of science and art and of culture.

Linked texts (12)

Harappā
Mohenjo-daro
Ṛgvedasaṃhitā — Sanskrit
Lothal
Kālībangan
Atharvavedasaṃhitā — Atharvan & Aṅgiras, Sanskrit
Chanhu-daro
Surkotada
Rangpur
Daimabad
Mundigak
Chandigarh (Harappan site)

A History of Agriculture in India v1.c20: Chapter 14. Domestic Animals of the Harappans and Poultry and Fish

Contents

Chapter 14. Domestic Animals of the Harappans and Poultry and Fish

Domestic Animals

Domestication of Birds

Linked texts (12)