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A History of Agriculture in India v1.c31: Chapter 25. Animal Husbandry in the Mauryan Age

A History of Agriculture in India v1.c31

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Chapter 25. Animal Husbandry in the Mauryan Age

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THE term animal husbandry is used here in a broader sense. Apart from cattle, buffaloes, sheep, and goats, it includes asses, horses, mules and elephants. Animal husbandry made great progress in the Mauryan age. As Sharma states, ‘With its emphasis on non-violence and the sanctity of animal life Buddhism boosted the cattle wealth of the country. The earliest Buddhist text Suttanipata declares the cattle to be givers of food, beauty and happiness (*annada, vannada, sukhada*), and thus pleads for their protection.’¹

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¹ Sharma, R.S. *Ancient India*, p. 64

Superintendent of Cows

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There was a Superintendent of Cows, whose duty was to supervise herds of milch cattle as well as to look after the stored milk and *ghee*. He also supervised the work of cowherds, buffalo herdsmen, milkers, churners and hunters. He took care that calves were not starved and were given adequate milk.

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The herds included equal numbers of milch cows, pregnant cows, aged cows, heifers and calves. There were special herds which included crippled cattle and cows difficult to milk.

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The cattle and buffaloes were classified as calves, steers, tameable ones, draught oxen, bulls that are to be trained for the yoke, bulls kept for crossing cows, cattle that are fit only for the supply of flesh, buffaloes and draught buffaloes; female calves, steers, heifers, pregnant cows, milch cattle, barren cattle (either cows or buffaloes); calves that are month or two old as well as those which are still younger.²

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² Shamasastry, R. *Kautilya’s Arthashastra*, p. 143

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The Superintendent of Cows branded them all, including their calves over two months old, and stray cattle which had remained unclaimed for two months. Then he registered them, also noting the natural marks, colour, and distance between the horns.

The Herdsman

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The cattle belonged severally to the residents of the village. After the crop was cut, the cattle were let loose and roamed over the fields. When the crops were growing they were sent under the charge of a herdsman, hired by the village collectively, to the grazing grounds. The herdsman was an important personage.

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‘Knowing the general appearance of each one of his charge and the marks upon it, skilled to remove flies’ eggs from their hide, to heal sores, accustomed to keep a good fire going with smoke to keep the gnats away, knowing the fords and the drinking places, clever in choosing pasture, leaving some milk in the udders, and with respect for the leaders of the herd.’

The Cow

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According to the *Arthashastra*, ‘The killing of the cow was a deadly sin. All that kill, eat and permit the slaughter of the cow rot in hell for as many years as there were hairs on the body of the cow so slain.’ The worship of the cow is one of the first among the daily duties prescribed for kings. Thus, ‘during the eighth division of the night, i.e. the very early morning, he (the king) shall receive benedictions from sacrificial priests, teachers and the high priest and having seen his physician, chief cook and astrologer, and having saluted both a cow with her calf and a bull, by circumambulating round them, he shall get into his court.’

The Buffalo

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In the Mauryan age, the buffalo had become a recognized dairy animal. Among the animals to be classified by the Superintendent of Cows, before forming them into herds, were buffaloes. The rations for buffaloes are mentioned, and the outturn of butter from buffaloe’s milk is compared with that from cow’s milk.

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In a Sanchi sculpture, which illustrates a Jataka story, two buffaloes are depicted swimming in a pool in front of a hermitage. In the background are the circular huts of the rishis, which resemble the Navdatoli huts in their design (Fig. 167).

The Goat

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As a milch animal, the goat is mentioned in the *Arthashastra* and seems to have become fairly important also, as the outturn of butter from her milk has been considered worthy of being reckoned in comparison with that of the cow or the buffalo.

The Sheep

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The sheep were shorn of their wool once in six months.

Bulls

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In the *Arthashastra*, it is prescribed that breeding bulls should be provided for the herds at the rate of four for every ten animals, whether cows or buffaloes.

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The bull capital at Rampurva in Tirhut depicts a vigorous zebu bull.

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[Figure: Fig. 172. An Aseel cock, a fighting breed of poultry, with large spurs. Deccani, late seventeenth century. Compare with the figure on obverse of silver coin of Sophytes (Fig. 169) (Courtesy: Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, Bombay)]

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[Figure: Fig. 173. Bull capital, Rampurva, Tirhut, Mauryan, 240 B.C. Calcutta Museum. The bull represents the Hariana breed. It is symbolic of the importance of cattle in the economy of Mauryan India Fig. 174. *Top*, Fragment of a torana architrave showing Gajalakshmi and a Nagori bull, Kausambi, Allahabad District, Uttar Pradesh, first century B.C., Allahabad Museum *Bottom*, A Nagori bull It is symbolic of the importance of cattle in the economy of Mauryan India (Fig. 173).

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Fig. 175. An illustration to a Jataka story. Keeping the pots hanging from the roof is a custom still followed in India. In front of the hut are two asses. (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India)

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A fragment of a torana architrave from Kausambi (first century B.C.) shows Gajalakshmi and a bull. The Gajalakshmi is surrounded by lotuses and a pair of elephants. The bull, which is a symbol of male fertility, resembles the Nagori breed (Fig. 174).

Pastures

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According to the *Arthashastra* it was enjoined upon kings that ample provision should be made for pastures by setting apart suitable land of sufficient extent, when forming villages. The *gopa* or village accountant was to note the boundaries of such pastures, number and register them. They were protected from thieves, tigers and other carnivores by hunters aided by their hounds. Herds were moved from one pasture to another according to the season.

Graziers

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The cattle when out grazing were exposed to many dangers. They could get stuck in a quagmire or fall from a precipice. They might get drowned in a river or be struck by lightning. They might get devoured by tigers, or bitten by snakes, or dragged into water by crocodiles. They might also perish in a forest fire. It was the duty of the graziers to save them from such dangers.

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The *Arthashastra* defines, among the duties of the graziers, caution in watering cows, "They shall allow their cattle to enter only into such rivers or lakes as are of equal depth all around, broad and free from mire and crocodiles". Cows should be guarded at home behind walled enclosures, if necessary, and protected when out grazing.

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Graziers were enjoined to group their animals into tens of each kind, according to their colour, and take them out for grazing. They were also to attach bells to the necks of their cattle, so as to scare away snakes and tigers and as a means of knowing the whereabouts of the herds. All animals possessed brand marks, which were stamped on them at the musters.

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There was capital punishment for stealing a cow or hurting one. The *Arthashastra* ordains, "Whoever hurts or causes another to hurt, or steals or causes another to steal a cow, should be slain.³"

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³ Shamasastry, R. *Kautilya's Arthashastra*, p. 144

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When a person caused a bull attached to a herd to fight with another bull, he was fined. If a bull got injured, that person was heavily fined. It is the usefulness which determines whether an animal is sacred or otherwise. Cattle had fully proved their usefulness in the Mauryan age by the milk they provided to the people and their draught power in cultivation.

Feed and Fodder

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The *Arthashastra* recognizes the difference between straw and grass and the two are separately specified in the feed to be given to cattle, as *yavasa* (meadow or green grass) and *trina* (ordinary dry straw).

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The feeding of oilcake is a definite recommendation in the *Arthashastra*. Detailed rations are prescribed for cows, buffaloes, mules, camels, etc., severally. Thus:

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'Bulls which are provided with nose strings and which equal horses in speed and carrying loads, are to be given half a *bhara* of meadow grass, twice the above quantity of ordinary grass (*trina*), one *tula* (100 *palas*) of oilcakes, ten *adhikas* of bran, five *palas* of salt, one *kudumba* of oil for rubbing over the nose, one *prastha* of drink (*pana*), one *tula* of flesh, one *adhika* of curds, one *drona* of barley or of cooked urd (*Vigna radiata*), one *drona* of milk; or half an *adhika* of *sura* (liquor), one *prastha* of oil or ghee, ten *palas* of sugar or jaggery. One *pala* of fruit of *sringibera* (ginger) may be substituted for milk. For cows, mules and asses, the diet was of the same commodities less by one quarter each. For buffaloes and camels it was twice the quantity. Buttermilk (*lassi*) was given as a drink to dogs and hogs. Moreover, all cattle were supplied with abundance of fodder and water. The quantity of the feed to be given was in proportion to the quantity of milk yielded by the cows or the duration of work in the case of bullocks.⁴

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⁴ Shamasastry, R. *Kautilya's Arthashastra*, p. 145

Milking and Milk

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In the *Arthashastra*, graziers are directed to milk their animals twice a day in some seasons, viz. the rainy, autumn and the first part of winter, and only once a day, i.e. in the morning, during the whole of spring and summer. This was done because there was plenty of grass in the pastures in the rainy season and early winter, and in summer the pastures dried up.

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The difference between the cow's milk and the buffalo's milk was well recognized in respect of their outturn of butter (fat content). 'One *drona* of cow's milk when churned will yield one *prastha* of butter; the same quantity of buffalo milk will yield one-seventh *prastha* more; and the same quantity of goats and sheep milk will produce one-half more,' states the *Arthashastra*.

Ghee

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It was in the form of ghee that the butter-fat in the milk was largely made use of. *Ghee* was included even in the rations of cattle. Elephants were given ghee as part of the ration at the rate of three prasthas per day, along with many other articles.

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Ghee was the best form in which butter-fat could be preserved for long periods. This knowledge has been made use of not only in domestic life but also in storing supplies in forts against a siege. Huge stone cisterns were used as receptacles for storing ghee. Lumps of gur were placed as a preservative at the bottom of cisterns while storing ghee in them. This practice prevails even now in some rural families in India.⁵

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⁵ Aiyer, A.K.Y.N. *Dairying in Ancient India*

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The best ghee was made from butter which was melted the same day. This was the kind of ghee used by kings and wealthy people.

Asses

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In the Mauryan age, asses were used as beasts of burden. In a Bharhut sculpture which illustrates a Jataka story two asses are shown in front of a cottage (Fig. 175).

Horses

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Horses were used for riding and for war. In war, they were yoked to chariots. The chariots were of various types, viz. festal chariots, battle chariots, and travelling-chariots. Horses were also yoked to carriages.

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The royal horses were under the charge of a Superintendent of Horses, who registered the breed, age, colour and their place of origin. The *Arthashastra* states, ‘The breed of Kambhhoja, Sindhu, Aratta, and Vanayu countries are the best; those of Bahlika, Papeya, Sauvira, and Taitala are of middle quality; and the rest ordinary.’

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Steeds, stallions and colts were kept separately in the stables. As regards the construction of stables, the *Arthashastra* gives the following directions. ‘The superintendent shall have a stable constructed as spacious as required by the number of horses to be kept therein, twice as broad as the length of a horse, with four doors facing the four quarters, with its central floor suited for the rolling of horses, with projected front provided with wooden seats at the entrance, and containing monkeys, peacocks, red spotted deer, mongoose, chakora, parrots, and myna birds; the room for every horse shall be four times as broad or long as the length of a horse, with its central floor paved with smoothened wooden planks, with separate compartments for fodder, with passages for the removal of urine and dung, and with a door facing either the north or the east.’

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Horses were given regular training for warfare, viz. circular movement, slow movement, jumping, galloping, and several forms of riding.

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Horses are also mentioned in the Jatakas.

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‘Sindh horses are milk-white and thorough-bred. They are white as lilies, swift as the wind and well trained. Thorough-bred horses are fed on parched rice, drippings, minced meat and grass and red rice-powder. Thorough-bred Sindh horses sheathed in mail were used for war purposes. The Valaha and Sindhu are the horses of superior breed.’⁶

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Horse-dealers figure prominently among the Gandhara trades and we learn from the Vayupurana that the Gandhara horses were considered the best of all. Horse-dealers from northern districts used to bring horses to Benares for sale. Sindh horses were available in Benares and were used on ceremonials by the king.

Mules

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Mules are mentioned in the Arthashastra.

Elephants

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Magadha was the first State in India which used elephants on a large scale in warfare. For traversing jungles and marshy areas, elephants are very useful. Moreover, they had their use in storming fortresses and breaking open massive doors. According to Greek sources, the Nandas maintained 6,000 elephants and Chandragupta Maurya had 9,000 elephants. On account of its usefulness in warfare, the elephant was a protected animal, and special forests were reserved for it. The Arthashastra states, ‘The victory of kings in battles depends mainly upon elephants; for elephants, being of large bodily frame, are capable not only to destroy the arrayed army of an enemy, his fortifications and encampments, but also to undertake works that are dangerous to life.’

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War elephants and riding elephants were kept inside the fort, whereas those with bad temper were kept outside. Only twenty-year-old male elephants were captured. Female elephants and young elephants were not captured.

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As regards the quality of elephants the Arthashastra states, ‘Elephants bred in countries such as Kalinga, Anga, Karusa, and the East are the best; those of the Dasarna and western countries are of middle quality; and those of Saurashtra and Panchajana countries are of low quality. The might and energy of all can, however, be improved by suitable training.’

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In the extreme limit of the country, elephant forests, separated from wild tracts, shall be formed.

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The Superintendent of Elephant Forests with his retinue of forest guards shall not only maintain the forests, but also acquaint himself with all passages for entrance into, or exit from, such of them as are mountainous or boggy or contain rivers or lakes.

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⁶Gode, P.K. Studies in Indian Cultural History, Vol. I, p. 229

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Fig. 176. Life in an Indian village in the Buddhist period, about 200 B.C. In the foreground are buffaloes, zebu bulls, goats and sheep. In front of the hut women are busy with domestic chores, such as grinding spices, dehusking paddy, and winnowing with a *chaaj*, Sanchi 200 B.C. (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India)

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[Figure: Fig. 177. A replica of the Girnar edict of Asoka, in front of the National Museum, New Delhi. In the edict Asoka states that he planted trees along roadsides Whoever kills an elephant shall be put to death.

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Whoever brings in the pair of tusks of an elephant, dead from natural causes, shall receive a reward of four-and-a-half panas.

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How elephants were captured is described as follows: ‘Guards of elephant forests, assisted by those who rear elephants, those who enchain the legs of elephants, those who guard the boundaries, those who live in forests, as well as by those who nurse elephants, shall, with the help of five or seven female elephants to help in tethering wild ones, trace the whereabouts of herds of elephants by following the course of urine and dung left by elephants, and along forest tracts covered over with branches of Bhallataki (*Semecarpus anacardium*), and by observing the spots where elephants slept or sat before or left dung, or where they had just destroyed the banks of rivers or lakes. They shall also precisely ascertain whether any mark is due to the movements of elephants in herds, of an elephant roaming single, of a stray elephant, of a leader of herds, of a tusker, of a rogue elephant, of an elephant in rut, of a young elephant, or of an elephant that has escaped from the cage.

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‘Experts in catching elephants shall follow the instructions given to them by the elephant doctor (*anikastha*), and catch such elephants as are possessed of auspicious characteristics and good character.’

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The captured elephants were given military training of seven kinds, viz. drill, turning, advancing, trampling down and killing, fighting with other elephants, attacking forts and cities and warfare. The elephants under training were provided with collars and were made to work in company with trained elephants.⁷

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⁷ Shamasastry, R. *The Arthashastra of Kautilya*, pp. 49, 151, 153

Veterinary Services

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Veterinary service was considered essential to the community and veterinary doctors were assigned free endowments of land, in the same way as the village accountants, physicians and horse-trainers. Medicinal herbs were collected from places where they were growing naturally. They were also grown in fields like other crops.

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Slaughterhouses were regulated by a Superintendent of Slaughterhouses. This arrangement afforded opportunities to the veterinarians to study and make observations on the internal organs of the animals.

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During the reign of Asoka, veterinary hospitals were State institutions and were functioning all over the Empire. In a rock edict it is stated, “Everywhere in the dominions of His Majesty King Priyadarsi, and likewise in the neighbouring realms...everywhere on behalf of His Majesty have two kinds of hospitals been established, hospitals for men and hospitals for beasts. Healing herbs medicinal for man and medicinal for beasts, wherever they were lacking, have been imported and planted..." Thus it is evident that provision was made for the care and treatment of sick cattle, horses and elephants.

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*A Concise History of Science in India*, INSA, New Delhi, 1971 Aiyer, A.K.Y.N. *Dairying in Ancient India*, *Symposium*, UNESCO and NIS, New Delhi, Nov. 1950 Gangopadhyay, R. *Some Materials for the Study of Agriculture and Agriculturists in Ancient India*, Calcutta, 1933 Gode, P.K. *Studies in Indian Cultural History*, Vol. I, Hoshiarpur, 1961 Raychaudhari, S.P. and Kaw, R.K.R. *Agriculture in Ancient India*, New Delhi, 1968 Shamasastry, R. *Kautilya's Arthashastra*, Mysore, 1960

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