A History of Agriculture in India v1.c36: Chapter 30. The Kanauj Empire of Harshavardhana

A History of Agriculture in India v1.c36

Language: English

v1.c36.s1 Nalanda University — 4 parts
v1.c36.s2 People and Government — 3 parts
v1.c36.s3 Towns and Buildings — 13 parts
v1.c36.s4 Cottage Industries—Textiles, Leather and Ivory — 12 parts
v1.c36.s5 Land Revenue Administration — 2 parts
v1.c36.s6 Bana's Observations on Agriculture in Harshacharita — 7 parts

Chapter 30. The Kanauj Empire of Harshavardhana

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LIFE OF THE PEOPLE OF INDIA AND THEIR AGRICULTURE,

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AS DESCRIBED IN HIUEN TSANG'S SI-YU-KI AND BANA'S HARSHACHARITA

Out of the ruins of the Gupta Empire arose four kingdoms in India at the close of the sixth century of the Christian Era. These kingdoms included the Maitrakas of Valabhi, the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pushpabhutis of Thanesar and Maukharis of Kanauj. Thanesar is an ancient site on the Sarasvati in Haryana, well known as the scene of the Mahabharata, the battle between the Kauravas and the Pandavas. At the close of the sixth century, Prabhakaravardhana was the ruler of Thanesar. He successfully fought the Huns and the Kushan king of Gandhara.

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Prabhakaravardhana had two sons, Rajyavardhana and Harshavardhana, and a daughter Rajyashri. Rajyashri was married to Grahavarman, the Maukhari ruler of Kanauj. Grahavarman was slain by the king of Malwa and his queen Rajyashri was made a prisoner. Rajyavardhana defeated the king of Malwa, but was treacherously murdered by Raja Shashanka of Bengal, who was an ally of the king of Malwa. It was owing to these circumstances that Harshavardhana became the ruler of Thanesar. A great meeting of the nobles of Kanauj invited him to accept the throne of Kanauj. He accepted the request and moved his capital from Thanesar to Kanauj.

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Harsha spent the early years of his reign in campaigning the country with an army of five thousand elephants, twenty thousand horses and fifty thousand infantry. Pedigree horses were imported for Harsha's cavalry from Vanayu (Waziristan), Aratta (Vahika or Punjab), Kamboja (Pamir region), Bharadvaja (northern Gadhwal), Sindhu-desa (Sindh Doab), and Parasika (Sassanian Iran). Bana mentions horses of six different colours in the King's stables. The tanagana type of horses, famous for their smooth and steady gait, are believed to have been obtained from northern Gadhwal. Their riders, the khakkatas, have been identified with an ancient tribe of the central Punjab. Bana refers to horses of especially good breeds and describes their build, habits, and distinguishing features.¹ Horses were maintained by the feudal chiefs, who brought them to the battlefield along with their soldiers. These feudal chiefs were rewarded by grants of land. The elephants were not unharnessed nor the soldiers unhelmeted for six years, during which period Harsha conquered the Punjab, Kanyakubja, Gauda (Bengal), Mithila and Orissa. Malwa, Gujarat and Kathiawar were also included in his kingdom. His advance to the Deccan was checked, A.D. 620, by the Chalukya king, Pulakesin II. Jalandhar in the Punjab was the boundary of Harsha’s empire in the north, and Ganjam in the east, and the Narmada in the south.

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¹ Devahuti, P. Harsha, a Political Study, p. 190

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Sanskrit replaced Prakrit, and was the language of religion, ritual, literature and science. The *Mahabharata*, the *Ramayana*, and the *Puranas* were popular throughout the country. As K. M. Munshi observes, ‘The leading role as a highly trained and purposive agency in integration was played by Brahmanas: men of learning and teachers; literary men and religious preceptors; ‘svamins’ who specialised in the sacrificial lore; the Pasupatacharyas, who, feared and respected by the people, wielded vast influence over kings and founded temples and monasteries, all of which became the centres of the new socio-religious movement. Smarta Brahmanas were not only interpreters, commentators and lawyers, but also expounders of *Dharma*. The influence of the Brahmanas was felt throughout the country. They slowly reclaimed and raised millions of backward people. Under their inspiration, communities were uplifted and the cultural and spiritual elevation of the individual secured.’²

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² Majumdar, R.C. (Ed.), *The History and Culture of the Indian People; The Classical Age*, p. xxi

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Our sources of information on the life of Indians and their agriculture in the seventh century of the Christian Era are *Si-yu-ki*, the travelogue of Hiuen Tsang, and *Harshacharita*, a biography of Harsha by his court poet Banabhatta.

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Hiuen Tsang (also known as Hsuan-tsang and Yuan-Chwang), the Chinese scholar, came to India in 630 during the reign of Harsha. Leaving Loyang in 628, he passed through Turfan, Samarqand and Bamiyan. He visited Kashmir and Kulu in the north. He also travelled to Buddhist pilgrimage centres, viz. Kapilavasthu, Pataliputra, Nalanda, and Bodhgaya. He paid a visit to Nasik and there came to Mathura. He resided in Nalanda on different occasions for about two years. He remained in India for about thirteen years (A.D. 630-643). Never before was such an arduous journey performed by any traveller with such meagre resources. He came in search of Buddhist texts and it is his faith which kept him inspired and enabled him to bear the rigours of the journey through pathless deserts and wild mountains. He left India with a large number of books on Buddhism and reached China in 645. He was honoured by the Emperor of China. He left an account of his travels in a book entitled *Si-yu-ki*. He was perceptive and his observations on places, people and plants are of great value as a contemporary record.

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An account of the material condition of the Indians in the seventh century is provided by Hiuen Tsang. The towns and villages of Gandhara lay desolate due to the ravages of the Huns. The belt of the country below the Nepal hills comprising the ancient cities of Sravasti, Kapilavastu, Ramagrama and Kusinagara lay deserted and was the haunt of robbers and wild beasts. The tract of country along the east coast comprising Kalinga, Dhanakataka and Chola was thinly populated. The last region was covered with jungle. Great forests extended over the territory to the east of Takka as well as to the south-east of Maharashtra. But the greater part of the country, particularly the Indo-Gangetic plain, undoubtedly enjoyed prosperity. This is proved by the pilgrim's reference to the luxurious dresses of the people in certain tracts and the number of rich families in other regions. Above all, the general prevalence of peace and prosperity is indicated by the rich specimens of architecture, sculpture and painting.

Nalanda University

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One of the most interesting accounts of Hiuen Tsang's travels is a description of the famous seat of learning at Nalanda in Bihar, which had become an international centre of Buddhism and attracted Buddhist scholars and monks from all over Asia. 'The curriculum included grammar, mechanics, medicine, logic, and metaphysics. Science was well established. Medicine was widely studied and included 'holding the lancet, in cutting, marking, and piercing with it, in extracting darts, in cleaning wounds, in causing them to dry up, the application of ointments and in the administration of emetics, purges, and oily enemas'. Astronomy was far advanced and the diameter of the world had been calculated. In physics, Brahmagupta (A.D. 628) had already, anticipating Newton, arrived at a Law of Gravity, and the Vaisesika school at an atomic theory.'³

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³ Edwardes, M. *A History of India—From the Earliest Times to the Present Day*, p. 84

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Brahmagupta, renowned mathematician and astronomer, was a native of Bhillamala, a town between Multan and Ahilwara. The main topics dealt with in his *Brahmasphuta-Siddhanta* are: mean planetary motions, true planetary motions, problems of time, space and distance, lunar and solar eclipses, the rising and setting of planets, the moon's cusps and shadows, and conjunctions of planets. The greatest exponent of Aryabhata's system of astronomy was Bhaskara I (*c.* A.D. 629), a contemporary of Brahmagupta.⁴

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⁴ Bose, D.M. (C. Ed.). *A Concise History of Science in India*, pp. 95, 96

People and Government

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With respect to the ordinary people, Hiuen Tsang observes, 'although they are naturally light-minded, yet they are upright and honourable. In money matters they are without craft, and in administering justice they are considerate. They dread the retribution of another state of existence, and make light of the things of the present world. They are not deceitful or treacherous in their conduct and are faithful to their oaths and promises, and in their rules of government there is remarkable rectitude, while in their behaviour there is much gentleness and sweetness. With respect to criminals and rebels, these are few in number and only occasionally troublesome. When the laws are broken or the power of the ruler violated, then the matter is clearly sifted and the offenders punished. There is no infliction of corporal punishment; they are simply left to live and die, and are not counted among men. When the rules of morality or justice have been violated, or a man is dishonest or wanting in filial love, his nose or ears are cut off and he is expelled from the city to wander in the jungle till he dies. For other faults besides these, a small fine is exacted in lieu of punishment. In investigating crimes, the rod is not used to extort proofs of guilt. In questioning the accused, if he answers frankly, his punishment is proportioned accordingly, but if he obstinately denies his fault, in order to probe the truth to the bottom, trial by ordeal is resorted to.

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'As the administration of the government is founded on benign principles, the executive is simple. The families are not entered on registers, and the people are not subjected to forced labour. The Crown-lands are divided into four parts. The first is for carrying out the affairs of State; the second, for paying the ministers and officers of the Crown; the third, for rewarding men of genius; the fourth, for giving alms to religious communities. In this way, the taxes on the people are light, and the services required of them are moderate. Every one keeps his worldly goods in peace, and all till the soil for their subsistence. Those who cultivate the royal estates pay a sixth part of their produce as tribute. The merchants who engage in commerce travel to and fro in pursuit of their calling. Rivers and toll-bars are opened for travellers on payment of a small sum. When the public works require it, labour is exacted but paid for. The payment is in strict proportion to the work done.'

People of Magadha, Malwa, Kutchh and Saurashtra

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Hiuen Tsang made the following observations on the people of Magadha, Malwa, Kutchh and Saurashtra:

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Magadha and Malwa. 'The soil is rich and fertile, and produces abundant harvests. Shrubs and trees are numerous and flourishing; flowers and fruits are met with in great quantities. The soil is suitable in an especial manner for winter wheat. They mostly eat biscuits made of parched corn-flour. The disposition of the men is virtuous and docile, and they are, in general, of remarkable intelligence. Their language is elegant and clear, and their learning is wide and profound.

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‘Two countries in India, on the borders, are remarkable for the great learning of the people, viz. Malwa on the south-west, and Magadha on the north-east. In this they esteem virtue and respect politeness (humanity). They are of an intelligent mind and exceedingly studious; nevertheless the men of this country are given to heretical belief as well as the true faith, and so live together.’

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Kutchh. ‘The population is dense; the quality of gems and precious substances stored up is very great; the produce of the land is sufficient for all purposes, yet commerce is their principal occupation. The soil is salty and sandy, the fruits and flowers are not plentiful. The country produces the hu-tsian tree. The leaves of this tree are like those of the Sz’chuen pepper (Shuh tsiau); it also produces the hiun-lu perfume tree, the leaf of which is like the thang-li. The climate is warm, windy, and dusty. The disposition of the people is cold and indifferent. They esteem riches and despise virtue.’

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Saurashtra. ‘The soil is impregnated with salt; flowers and fruits are rare. Although the climate is equable, yet there is no cessation of tempests. The manners of the people are careless and indifferent; their disposition light and frivolous. They do not love learning and are attached both to the true faith and also to heretical doctrine.’⁵

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⁵ Beal, S. *Chinese Accounts of India*, Vol. II, pp. 452, 453, 456 and 459

Towns and Buildings

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Hiuen Tsang made the following observation on the towns and villages of India. “The towns and villages have inner gates; the walls are wide and high; the streets and lanes are tortuous, and the roads winding. The thoroughfares are dirty and the stalls arranged on both sides of the road with appropriate signs. Butchers, fishers, dancers, executioners, and scavengers, and so on, have their abodes without the city. In coming and going these persons are bound to keep on the left side of the road till they arrive at their homes. Their houses are surrounded by low walls and form the suburbs. The earth being soft and muddy, the walls of the towns are mostly built of bricks or tiles. The towers on the walls are constructed of wood or bamboo; the houses have balconies and belvederes, which are made of wood, with a coating of lime or mortar and covered with tiles. The different buildings have the same form as those in China: rushes, or dry branches, or tiles, or boards are used for covering them. The walls are covered with lime and mud, mixed with cow’s dung for purity. At different seasons they scatter flowers about. Such are some of their different customs.

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“The sangharmas are constructed with extraordinary skill. A three-storeyed tower is erected at each of the four angles. The beams and the projecting heads are carved with great skill in different shapes. The doors, windows, and the low walls are painted profusely; the monks' cells are ornamental on the inside and plain on the outside. In the very middle of the building is the hall, high and wide. There are various storeyed chambers and turrets of different height and shape without any fixed rule. The doors open towards the east; the royal throne also faces the east.

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SEATS, CLOTHING ETC.

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"When they sit or rest they all use mats; the royal family and the great personages and assistant officers use mats variously ornamented, but in size they are the same. The throne of the reigning sovereign is large and high, and much adorned with precious gems; it is called the Lion-throne (simhasana). It is covered with extremely fine drapery; the footstool is adorned with gems. The nobility use beautifully painted and enriched seats, according to their tastes.

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DRESS, HABITS ETC.

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"Their clothing is not cut or fashioned; they mostly affect fresh-white garments; they esteem little those of mixed colour or ornamented. The men wind their garments round their middle, then gather them under the armpits, and let them fall down across the body, hanging to the right. The robes of the women fall down to the ground; they completely cover their shoulders. They wear a little knot of hair on their crowns, and let the rest of their hair fall loose. Some of the men cut off their moustaches, and have other odd customs. On their heads the people wear caps (crowns), with flower-wreaths and jewelled necklets. Their garments are made of Kiau-she-ye (kauseya) and of cotton. Kau-she-ye is the product of the wild silkworm.

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"In North India, where the air is cold, they wear short and close-fitting garments, like the Hu people. The dress and ornaments worn by non-believers are varied and mixed. Some wear peacocks' feathers; some wear as ornaments necklaces made of skull bones (the Kapaladharinas); some have no clothing, but go naked (Nirgranthas); some wear leaf or bark garments; some pull out their hair and cut off their moustaches; others have bushy whiskers and their hair braided on the top of their heads. The custom is not uniform, and the colour, whether red or white, not constant.

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"The Kshatriyas and the Brahmans are cleanly and wholesome in their dress, and they live in a homely and frugal way. The king of the country and the great ministers wear garments and ornaments different in their character. They use flowers for decorating their hair, with gem-decked caps; they ornament themselves with bracelets and necklaces.

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"There are rich merchants who deal exclusively in gold trinkets, and so on. They mostly go bare-footed; few wear sandals. They stain their teeth red or black; they bind up their hair and pierce their ears; they ornament their noses, and have large eyes. Such is their appearance.

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CLEANLINESS, ABLUTIONS ETC.

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"They are very particular in their personal cleanliness, and allow no remissness in this particular. All wash themselves before eating; they never use that which has been left over (from a former meal); they do not pass the dishes. Wooden and stone vessels, when used, must be destroyed; vessels of gold, silver, copper, or iron after each meal must be rubbed and polished. After eating they cleanse their teeth with a willow stick, and wash their hands and mouth.

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"Until these ablutions are finished they do not touch one another. Every time they perform the functions of nature they wash their bodies and use perfumes of sandal-wood or turmeric."⁶

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⁶ Beal, S. *Chinese Accounts of India*, Vol. II, pp. 132, 133

Cottage Industries—Textiles, Leather and Ivory

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In the *Harshacharita* we find a mention of *pulakabandha* (gaily coloured cloth) and *pushpapatta* (flowered silk), and bark used by ascetics. Ajanta frescoes reveal four distinct weaving techniques, namely gold or silver brocade, "tie-and-dye work", weaving after separate dyeing of the warp and the woof, and the spotted muslin.

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From a passage in Santideva's *Siksha-samuchchaya* (a work of the seventh century of the Christian Era) we learn that Banaras retained its reputation as the producer of the best silk garments. A slight reference in the *Harshacharita* proves that the *kshauma* cloth of the Pundra country was sufficiently well known to find its way into the author's village home. Hiuen Tsang states that Mathura produced a fine striped variety of cotton cloth in his time. Indirect evidence of the advanced condition of the textile industry in Kamarupa is found in the list of presents sent by its King to Harsha. The list comprised bundle of *kshauma*, *jatipattika* (woven silk) and *chitrapata* (figured textiles).

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'Among the industries dealing with animal products there are two deserving special mention. As regards the leather industry the *Amarakosa* has synonyms for leather-fan, leather-bottle for containing oil, leather shoes and boots. Representations of human or divine figures in leather boots or shoes are found in the contemporary sculptures and paintings. As regards ivory work, repeated references are found in the literary works of this period.'⁷

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⁷ Majumdar, A.K. (Ed.), *The History and Culture of the Indian People; The Classical Age*, pp. 592, 593, 594

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*Crops.* Hiuen Tsang also mentions the characteristic products of the regions visited by him. From his account, it appears that cereals like wheat, rice and millets and fruits were extensively cultivated. He specifically mentions a dozen states which were remarkable for their fertile soil, good farming and rich crops. In Poonch and Mathura, fruits were grown in orchards adjoining homesteads. Paryatra (Bairat) produced a variety of rice which was ready for harvesting in sixty days while Magadha grew another variety with large grains of extraordinary fragrance which was called 'rice for grandees.'

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Shaman Hwui Li, the disciple of Hiuen Tsang, referrring to his guru's residence at Nalanda monastery, states, 'After this he went to reside in a dwelling to the north of the abode of Dharmpala Bodhisattva, where he was provided with every sort of charitable offering. Each day he received 120 jambiras, 20 pin-long-sten (puga, arecanut), 20 tan-k'an (nutmegs), an ounce (tael) of camphor and a ching (peck) of Mahasali rice. This rice is as large as the black bean and when cooked is aromatic and shining, like no other rice at all. It grows only in Magadha, and nowhere else. It is offered only to the King or to religious persons of great distinction and hence the name Kung-ta-jin-mai (i.e. rice offered to the great householder).’⁸

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⁸ Gode, P.K. *Studies in Indian Cultural History*, Vol. I, p. 260

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*Fruit Plants.* The Amala fruit (Ngan-mi-lo), the Madhuka fruit (Mo-tu-kia), the Bhadra fruit (po-ta-lo), the Kapittha fruit (kie-pi-ta), the Mocha fruit (Mau-che), the Narikela fruit (Na-li-ki-lo), the Panasa fruit (Panna-so). It would be difficult to enumerate all the kinds of fruits; we have briefly named those most esteemed by the people. As for the date (Tsau), the chestnut (Lih), the loquat (P'i), and the persimmon (Thi) they are not known. The pear (Li), the wild plum (Nai), the peach (T'au), the apricot (Hand or Mui), the grape (Po-tau)., etc., these all have been brought from the country of Kashmir, and are found growing on every side. Pomegranates and sweet oranges are grown everywhere.

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*Vegetables.* In cultivating the land, those whose duty is to sow and reap, plough and harrow (weed), and plant according to the season; and after their labour they rest a while. With respect to edible herbs and plants, we may name ginger and mustard, melons and pumpkins, the Heun-lo (Kandu?) plant, and others. Onions and garlic are little grown; and few persons eat them; if any one uses them for food, they are expelled beyond the walls of the town.

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The most usual food is milk, butter, cream, soft sugar, sugar-candy, the oil of the mustard-seed; and all sorts of cakes made of corn are used as food. Fish, mutton, gazelle, and deer they eat generally fresh.

Utensils

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They have many vessels made of dried clay; they seldom use red copper vessels: they eat from one vessel, mixing all sorts of condiments together, which they take up with their fingers. They have no spoons or cups, and in short no sort of chopstick.

Drinks

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With respect to the different kinds of wine and liquors, there are various sorts. The juice of the grape and sugarcane, these are used by the Kshattriyas as drink; the Vaisyas use strong fermented drinks; the Sramans and Brahmans drink a sort of syrup made from the grape or sugarcane, but not of the nature of fermented wine.

Land Revenue Administration

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Commenting on administration and land revenue Hiuen Tsang observes, "As the government is tolerant, administrative duties are simple. There is no registration of households, nor is there *corvee* for individuals. Royal land is divided generally into four parts... (for defraying various expenses). For this reason, tax and *corvee* are light, and the people are happy to follow the calling of their forefathers. Those who work as tenant farmers on the royal estate hold land in proportion to the number of persons in the family, and they pay a tax of one part in six."⁹

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⁹ Beal, S. Chinese Accounts of India, Vol. II, p. 143

Bana's Observations on Agriculture in Harshacharita

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Bana's *Harshacharita* provides a vivid picture of Indian society, manners and customs, climate, crops, ornamental plants and domestic animals. These are based on inside knowledge of a native with a keen sense of observation.

Autumn

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Bana thus describes autumn, when the rains stop and paddy ripens. 'It was the beginning of autumn, when the clouds are thinned, when the *cataka* is distressed, when the *kadamba* duck gives voice—the season deadly to frogs, robbing the peacock of its pride. Then the caravans of *hamsas* are welcomed back, the sky is like a whetted sword, the sun brilliant, the moon at her clearest, tender the array of stars. The rainbow of Indra fades, the girdling lightning is at rest, the waters run hued like lapis lazuli, the clouds rolling light as mists leave Indra unemployed. Then closes the *Nipa*, the *Kutaja* has no flower; budless is the plantain, soft the red lotus, the blue lotus exudes honey; the water-lily is a joy, the nights are cool with the *Cephalika*, the jasmine becomes fragrant; the ten regions are all ablaze with opening night lotuses, grey are the winds with *Saptacchada* pollen, lovely clustering *Bandhukas* form an unexpected evening glow. The horses have undergone lustration, the elephants are wild, the herds of oxen intoxicated with ferocity. The range of mud diminishes, young sand isles bud forth by the river banks. The wild rice is parched to ripeness, the pollen is formed in the *Priyangu* blossoms, the cucumber’s skin is hardened, and the reed grass smiles with flowers.’

Products of Assam

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Bana describes in detail the presents sent to Harsha by the heir apparent of Assam through a messenger, Hamsavega by name. The king inspected an elaborate umbrella brought by the messenger. Bana states, ‘This having been first inspected by the king, the servants in due order displayed the remaining presents. Among them were famous ornaments inherited from Bhagadatta and other renowned kings, ornaments which crimsoned the heavenly spaces with the light of the finest gems: the prime of sheeny crest jewels: pearl necklaces: silken towels, pure as the autumn moon’s light, rolled up in baskets of variously coloured reeds: quantities of pearl, shell, sapphire, and other drinking vessels, embossed by skilful artists: loads of Kardaranga leather bucklers with charming borders, bright gold-leaf work winding about them, and cases to preserve their colour: soft loin-clothes smooth as birch bark: pillows of *samuruka* leather, and other kinds of smooth figured textures: cane stools with the bark yellow as the ear of millet: volumes of fine writing with leaves made from aloe bark and of the hue of the ripe pink cucumber: luscious milky betel nut fruit, hanging from its sprays and green as young *harita* doves; thick bamboo tubes containing mango sap and black aloe oil, and fenced round with sheaths of *Kapotika* leaves, tawny as an angry ape’s cheeks: bundles contained in sacks of woven silk and consisting of black aloe dark as pounded collyrium, *Goçirça* sandal stealing the fiercest inflammation away, camphor cool, pure, and white as bits of ice, scent bags of musk oxen, *Kakkola* sprays, clove flower bunches, and nutmeg clusters, all bristling with masses of ripe fruit: cups of *ullaka*, diffusing a fragrance of sweetest wine: heaps of black and white chowries: carved boxes of panels for painting, with brushes and gourds attached to hold the paints: curious pairs of *Kinnaras*, ourang-outangs, *jivanjivaka* birds, and mermen, with necks bound in golden fetters: musk deer scenting the space all round them with their perfume: female *chamara* deer, used to running about the house: parrots, *carikas*, and other birds enclosed in gold-painted bamboo cages and chattering copious wit: partridges in cages of coral: and rings of hippopotamus ivory, encrusted with rows of huge pearls from the brows of elephants.’

The Economy of a Forest Settlement in Central India

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Harsha had marched into Central India to recover his sister, Rajyashri. Bana describes in detail the economy of a forest village in the black cotton soil region of Madhya Pradesh. Bana states, ‘The next day he set out with the horse in search of his sister, and in a comparatively few days’ march reached the Vindhya forest. Entering, he saw while still at some distance a forest settlement, distinguished by woodland districts turned grey by the smoke from granaries of wild grain in which heaps of burning *Ṣaṣṭika* chaff sent up ablaze. Wherein were huge banyans, encircled with cowpens formed of a quantity of dry branches; tiger-traps, constructed in fury at the slaughter of young calves; zealous foresters violently seizing the axes of trespassing wood cutters; and Durga arbours built of tree clumps in the thickets. The outskirts being for the most part forest, many parcels of rice-land, threshing-ground, and tilth were being apportioned by small farmers, and that with no little vigour of language, since it was mainly spade culture and they were anxious for the support of their families. No great amount of coming and going tramped the earth owing to the difficulty of ploughing the sparsely scattered fields covered with *Kaca* grass, with their few clear spaces, their black soil stiff as black iron, the branches bursting from the tree trunks set up here and there, their growths of impenetrable *Cyamaka*, their wealth of *Alambusa*, and their *Kokilaksa* bushes not yet cleared away. Near the tillage scaffolds constructed above ground suggested incursions of wild beasts.

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‘In every direction at the entrance to the forests were drinking arbours made of wayside trees, which by their coolness seemed to dispel the summer heat: arbours, where the shade was dappled by fresh shoots made grey by the dust of travellers’ stamping feet, where were *Nāgasphuṭa* bushes planted in the vicinity of freshly dug tanks bedecked with bunches of *Sal* flowers easily obtained from the woods, tiny huts formed of close-woven wattles, heaps of crocks dotted with meal and encircled by twisted braids of flies, stones of rose-apples (*jamun*) which travelling folk had eaten scattered on the ground about them, masses of *Dhuli-Kadamba* flowers with the pollen formed, wooden stands surmounted by an array of bristling water jars to steal away thirst, cool porous vessels with dripping bases for allaying weariness, pitchers black with moist aquatic plants for the purpose of keeping the water cold, bits of pink gravel taken from ewers to cool the air, cups having pink flowers tied by straw whisps about their necks, tree trunks bristling with bunches of juicy young mango fruit forbidden to wither by bundles of dew-besprent twigs, and successive troops of resting pilgrims drinking the water.

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‘In other places again blacksmiths were almost intensifying the heat by burning heaps of wood for charcoal. On every side the prospect was filled with the inhabitants of the district, who dwelt in the surrounding country, entering woods to collect timber and enveloped in the provisions guarded for them by old men stationed in the hamlet houses of the vicinity. Their bodies they had anointed to prepare themselves for their hard sylvan toils. On their shoulders were set strong axes, and about their necks hung their breakfast bundles. They wore ragged clothes for fear of thieves. Their water they bore in jars having mouths covered with corks of leaves and attached to their necks which were encircled by triple collars of black cane. Strong oxen marched before them in couples.

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'Ranging on the outskirts were hunters, who grasped snares with intricate loops formed of animals' sinews, and bore coiled traps and netted nooses fastened to a quantity of screens used in shooting wild beasts. Fowlers roamed hither and thither, loaded with cages for falcons, partridges, *kapinjalas*, and the like, while their boys loitered about with aviaries hanging from their shoulders. Troops of childish trappers wandered in eager pursuit of female sparrows caught with twigs whereon a little castaway pulse broth was smeared. Young hunters, practising bird-catching, coaxed on a tribe of dogs frightened at partridges hidden in clumps of grass.

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'There were people moving along with bundles of *Cidhu* bark, hued like an old ruddy-goose's neck, countless sacks of recently uprooted *Dhataki* flowers of the colour of red ore and of cotton plants, plentiful loads of flax and hemp bundles, quantities of honey, peacocks' tail-feathers, wreaths of compressed wax, barkless *Khadira* logs frilled with hanging *Lamajjaka* grass, large bundles of *Kustha*, and *Rodhra* yellow as a fullgrown lion's mane. Village wives hastened en route for neighbouring villages, all intent on thoughts of sale and bearing on their heads baskets filled with various gathered forest fruits.

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'Here and there the preparation of unsightly fields of barren soil was being effected by numerous lines of wagons, bearing heaps of manure from old dust heaps and yoked to strong young steers, while to the creaking of their loose and noisy wheels were added the angry cries of the dust-grey ploughboys who sitting on the poles urged them on. The surrounding country was black with numerous sugarcane enclosures, showing wide carefully tended branches, buffalo skeletons fixed on stakes to scare with their sharp points the rabbits which devastated the rising buds, and high bamboo fences which the antelopes lightly leapt when startled by ox-drivers' sticks which the watchers hurled at them.

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At very wide intervals were the dwellings of the forest householders, girt with orchards of emerald-bright *Snuha*, entangled with thickets of bamboo suitable for bows, and difficult of access owing to rows of thorny *Karanja*. They had garden enclosures with clumps of *Garmut*, *Gavedhuka*, *Granthiparna*, *Cigru*, *Surana*, *Surasa*, *Vangaka*, *Vaca*, and the castor plant, and a network of *Kasthaluka* creepers, reared upon tall planted uprights, provided a shade. Young calves were tied to *Khadira* stakes fixed in the ground in circular jujube arbours, and crowing cocks more or less indicated the positions of the houses. At the foot of Agasti trees in the yards tanks and drinking vessels for birds had been constructed, and pink masses of jujube were scattered around. The walls were formed of partitions made of slips of bamboo, leaves, stalks, and reeds, while for ornament Gorocana pigment and Kimcuka flowers were used. There were piles of charcoal tied with Valvaja grass, numerous heaps of cotton from the seemul tree fruit, stores of Nala rice, waterlily roots, candied sugar, white lotus seed, bamboos, and threshed rice ready at hand; also collections of Tamala seeds, mats worn from being used to pound ashes and disposed upon heaps of Kacmarya, a wealth of withered Rajadana and Madana fruit, abundance of Madhuka fruit decoctions, pots of safflower in excellent cupboards, no lack of Rajamasha, cucumber, Karkatika, and gourd seeds, and collections of living pets, such as wild-cats, maludhana snakes, ichneumons, calijatakas, and the like.’

Crops of Srikantha (Thanesar Tract)

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Bana thus describes the products of Srikantha region (comprising the Thanesar tract in Haryana). ‘Listen. There is a certain region named Srikantha, peopled by the good, a heaven of Indra. Owing to the number of its land lotuses the ploughs, whose shares uproot the fibres as they scar the acres, excite a tumult of bees, singing, as it were, the excellencies of the good soil. Unbroken lines of Pundra sugarcane enclosures seem besprinkled by the clouds. On every side its marches are packed with corn heaps, like extemporized mountains, distributed among the threshing floors. Throughout it is adorned with rice crops extending beyond their fields, where the ground bristles with cumin beds watered by the pots of the Persian wheel. Upon its lordly uplands are wheat crops variegated with Rajamasha patches ripe to bursting and yellow with the split bean pods. Attended by singing herdsmen mounted on buffaloes, pursued by sparrows greedy for swarms of flies, gay with the tinkle of bells bound to their necks, roaming herds of cows make white its forests, revelling on Vaspachedya grass and dropping milk. Thousands of spotted deer dot the districts. Regions, pale with the dust of Ketaki beds emitting white pollen, gleam like the approaches of Shiva’s City when made grey by the sprinklings of the Pramathas. Pot-herbs and plantains blacken the soil around the villages. At every step are groups of young camels. The exits are made attractive by vine-arbours and pomegranate orchards; arbours, ablaze with Pilu sprays, besmeared with the juice of hand-pressed citron leaves, having flower bunches formed of spontaneously gathered saffron filaments, and travellers blissfully sleeping after drinking the juice of fresh fruit, orchards, where the fruit, ripe to bursting, seems coloured by the beaks of the parrots attacking the seeds, and the flowers are tinged by the cheeks of climbing monkey tribes. There are lovely groves where travelling folks plunder the date-trees, monkeys lick sweet-scented date juice, and partridges tear the Aruka to pieces with their beaks. Not barren are the sylvan hollows of forest pools, refuge of myriad travellers, encircled with avenues of tall Arjuna trees and turbid at the edges through the descent of herds of kine. Troops of camels and flocks of sheep form in hordes under the guardianship of camel boys. Wandering droves of mares, besmeared with the sap of crushed saffron beds, where they roll, with snorting nostrils and uplifted heads drinking in the air, as it were to beget speed in the young lying in their wombs.

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'In such a country is a certain district called Sthanvicvara, blessed, like the world's first youth, with sweet fragrance of lovely flowers in diverse pleasances; bedecked, like the road to Dharma's gynaeceum, with many myriads of buffaloes stained from rolling in saffron; surpassing Tripura, as it were, in having all its people unacquainted with the devastating might of Shiva's arrow; bright, like a replica of the moon world, with rows of white houses plastered with stucco.'

Animals Used for Transport and Warfare

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Harsha gives an order to his army to get ready and march towards Central India. Bana thus describes how the order was carried out. Incidentally we get an idea of domestic animals used for transport and warfare. 'Wicked elephants were loaded with a cargo of utensils hurriedly tossed upon them by travel-practised domestics. Amid the laughter of the crowd helpless corpulent bawds lagged as they were with difficulty dragged along with hands and legs sprawling sideways. Many huge and savage elephants trumpeted as the free play of their limbs was checked by the tightening of the girth-bands of their gaudy housings. A jangling of bells taking place in the elephant troop inflamed all ears with fever. Camels, as sacks were set on their backs, bellowed at the outrage. The carriages of the high-born nobles' wives were thronged with roguish emissaries sent by princes of rank. Elephant riders, deceived as to the time of starting, searched for new servants. Highly honoured footmen led the fine horses of the king's favourites. An array of gay gallants employed thick unguents to draw circular lines of camphor on their persons. To the saddles of marshals were fastened martingales with wooden figures of deer, bells, and reeds attached. Apes were placed among troops of horses whose grooms were entangled in a network of coiled reins. Stablemen dragged along half-eaten shoots to be eaten at the morning manoeuvres. Loud grew the uproar of foragers shouting to one another. Much crashing of stables resounded as the young rearing horses swerved in the confusion of starting. Women, hastening at the call of riders whose elephants were in readiness, presented unguents for the animals' heads. The low people of the neighbourhood, running up as the elephants and horses started, looted heaps of abandoned grain. Donkeys ridden by throngs of boys accompanied the march. Crowds of carts with creaking wheels occupied the trampled roads. Oxen were laden with utensils momentarily put upon them. Stout steers, driven on in advance, lagged out of greed for fodder lying near them. Despairing merchants saw the oxen bearing their wealth flee before the onset of the tumult. A troop of seraglio elephants advanced where the press of people gave way before the glare of their runners' torches. Horsemen shouted to dogs tied behind them. Old people sang the praises of tall Tangana horses which by the steady motion of their quick footfalls provided a comfortable seat. Deckhan riders disconsolately contended with fallen mules.'¹⁰

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¹⁰ Cowell, E. B. and Thomas, F. W. (trans.). The Harshacharita of Bana, pp. 70, 71, 213-215 225-229, 79-82 and 200-201.

Land Revenue

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Regarding the incidence of land revenue, Devahuti observes, 'It was an ancient practice to measure villages for purposes of land-tax in plough measures, i.e. the area that could be turned over with a plough pulled by a given number of oxen. Tax was then fixed on each plough measure. Inscriptions sometimes append numerical adjectives after the names of villages (Sakambhara sapada-laksha). Apparently, the numbers denote plough measures in the territory and the tax from it in a silver panas. Bana's reference to the area of village in terms of siras indicates that the land unit was also known by this name among others. The sira of Harsha's time was probably equal to the Kulya-vapa of the Gupta days. Sankara's commentary on the Harshacharita describes sira as hala (plough). The latter term was employed for land units in Andhra in the third century A.D. Manu's commentators state that as much land as could be cultivated by twelve oxen (double of a 'middling plough') was called kula. Bana's reference also suggests that an average village measured 1,000 plough units, which according to a late text, the Sukraniti-sara, comprised one square praja-patya krosa, or approximately 1,333 acres [450 hectares].

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Land-tax was calculated per plough unit (one and a third acres at one silver karsha-pana a month). As a benedictory beginning to his march of conquest Harsha donated to brahmans a hundred villages, each delimited by a thousand ploughs and therefore capable of yielding tax of a thousand silver panas a month.¹¹

Linked texts (6)

Harṣacarita — Bāṇabhaṭṭa, Sanskrit
Tibetan translation ('Chi med mdzod) — Classical Tibetan
Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Purāṇa — Sanskrit
Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa — Vālmīki, Sanskrit
Śikṣāsamuccaya — Śāntideva, Sanskrit