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A History of Agriculture in India v1.c37: Chapter 31. The Kingdoms of South India

A History of Agriculture in India v1.c37

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English

Contents

Chapter 31. The Kingdoms of South India

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THE CHALUKYAS AND RASHTRAKUTAS OF THE DECCAN

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THE PALLAVAS, PANDYAS, HOYSALAS AND KAKATIYAS

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A.D. 535 — A.D. 1300

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PEOPLE, CROPS AND CATTLE

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THE Narmada is the conventional boundary between the north and south India. The southern states are subdivided into two groups, viz. the kingdoms of the Deccan Plateau and the Tamil group of Kingdoms.

The Chalukyas

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The kingdoms of the Deccan Plateau were confined to the present-day territory of the Maharashtra State with the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra as their southern boundary. The region of Karnataka was more closely connected with the Deccan kingdoms than with the Tamil States. Inscriptions on stone or copper plates, written in Sanskrit and Kannada, are our main source of information regarding the history of the Deccan kingdoms.

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Pulakesin I (c. A.D. 535 to 566) was the founder of the Chalukya Dynasty. His capital was Badami (Vatapi) in the Bijapur District, where he built a hill fortress, A.D. 543. His successor Kirtivarman I (A.D. 566-597) beautified Vatapi with temples and other buildings. The next king Mangalesha (A.D. 597) completed the carving of Vaishnava cave temple of Badami started by his father. The rock-cut sculptures of Vishnu in Badami caves are monumental in proportion. Some sculptures with genre themes are also of interest. On a bracket, a loving couple is shown standing below the branches of a mango laden with fruit (Fig. 194, right). A similar type of couple can be seen in a seventh-century temple at Pattadakal (Fig. 194, left). These sculptures indicate that mango was a favourite fruit of Indians in the south too.

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The Durga and Ladkhan temples at Aiholli, well known for their beautiful Shaivite sculpture, were built in the sixth century. The slab on which the Flying Gandharvas are sculpted was in the Durga temple. Now it is in the National Museum, New Delhi, and is a masterpiece of Indian sculpture.

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Pulakesin II (A.D. 609-642) successfully resisted Harsha, and about A.D. 620 the Narmada was recognized as the boundary between the northern kingdom of Harsha and the southern kingdom of Chalukyas. Pulakesin II sent an embassy to the court of the Persian king, Khusrau II, A.D. 620. He carried on warfare with the Pallava king Narasimha and this feud was carried on by his successors. Another group of temples was constructed at Pattadakal, 16 kilometres from Badami. Out of these, Papanath (A.D. 680) and Virupaksha temples have some exquisite sculptures. Kirtivarman II, who succeeded to the throne in 744, was overthrown by Dantidurga, the founder of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty.

The Rashtrakutas

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The Rashtrakutas belonged to Lattalura (modern Latur), a town in the Usmanabad District of Andhra Pradesh. The founder of the dynasty was Dantidurga, an official of the Chalukyas of Badami. Realizing the weakness of his overlord, Kirtivarman II, Dantidurga made himself the master of Maharashtra and also annexed Gujarat and parts of Madhya Pradesh. In A.D. 753, he proclaimed himself the paramount ruler of the Deccan. In A.D. 756, he was succeeded by his uncle Krishna I, who defeated the Gangas of Karnataka. The monolithic Kailasha temple at Ellora was excavated under his patronage. It was cut out of rock from top downwards, and the precision of its architecture and the beauty of its sculptures remain unrivalled. Krishna I died in A.D. 773, and was succeeded by his son Govinda. Amoghavarsha I (A.D. 814-880) was the builder of the Manyakheta City. He built a palace at Manyakheta which was famous for its fine workmanship. The next kings were Krishna II, Indra III, and Krishna III. The last invaded the Chola territory and defeated the Chola king at Takkolam (A.D. 949).

The Pallavas

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Simhavarman (A.D. 550-558) was the founder of the Pallava Dynasty, which had its capital at Kanchi (Conjevaram). His son Mahendravarman I (c. A.D. 600-630) was a poet, musician and great builder of temples. He introduced the rock-cut temple architecture in Tamil country. One of his titles was Vichitrachitta, a tribute to the imaginative quality of his mind. Reliefs of Mahendravarman I and his two queens are found on the walls of a rock-cut temple at Mamalapuram, and it seems he pioneered the carving of these temples.

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Narasimhavarman Mahamalla (A.D. 630-668), a wrestler and warrior, succeeded Mahendravarman I. One of Narasimhavarman’s achievements was a successful naval expedition to Ceylon to reinstate the Sinhalese prince Manaverma. Narasimhavarman beautified the port of Mamallapuram. It was during his reign about A.D. 640 that Hiuen Tsang travelled in the south. He found Jainism flourishing in the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms. Hiuen Tsang states, ‘Kanchi was about six miles [9.6 kilometres] in circumference. There were more than one hundred Buddhist monasteries housing over 10,000 Theravadin monks. The majority of the eighty non-Buddhist temples belonged to Digambara Jains. Though Buddhism was declining in South India, its position in Tonda-mandalam was conspicuous. The people (of Ta-to-p ‘i-t’ u or Tonda-mandalam) esteemed great learning.... Not far from the south of the capital was a large monastery which was a rendezvous for the most eminent men of the country.¹

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¹ Majumdar, R.C., *The History and Culture of the Indian People : The Classical Age*, p. 261

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Parmeshvara-Varman was succeeded by his son Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha (c. A.D. 699-722). He built the Kailashnatha temple at Kanchi and the Shore temple at Mahabalipuram. The next king was Nandi-Varman II Pallavamalla (A.D. 730-800). He built the Muktesh-wara and Vaikuntha-perumal temples at Kanchi. He was a scholar who patronized learning. Saint Tirumangal Alvar flourished during his reign.

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Sittannavasal. In the sixth or seventh century, a rock-cut Jain sanctuary was built at Sittannavasal near Pudukottai. It is a square hall with a vestibule before it, and is noted especially for its frescoes, which are stylistically akin to those in the caves of Ajanta. The most remarkable of these frescoes, on the ceiling of the vestibule, depicts animals drinking from a lotus pool.

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Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram). Mamallapuram, or “the Seven Pagodas”, is on the coast of the Bay of Bengal. Early in the Christian Era, it was an important port which maintained trade relations with the Roman Empire, as is proved by the Roman coins found here. The city is cited in the *Periplus of the Erythraean Sea* and Ptolemy’s *Geography*. The existing monuments date from the Pallava period, with the earliest going back to the first half of the seventh century. Not far from the shore are five monolithic temples (*rathas*), bearing the name of the five Pandavas, heroes of the epic *Mahabharata*. Each of these temples, cut from a single block of granite, has an individual form: a square plan with pyramidal covering, supporting small-scale models of buildings, as in the Dharmaraja Ratha and the Arjuna Ratha; a square plan, with a roof imitating that of a thatched cottage, as in the Draupadi Ratha; a rectangular plan with one storey adorned with niches, as in the Bhima Ratha; and an apsidal plan as in the Buddhist *chaitya* (Sahadeva Ratha). Large monolithic animals—lions, elephants, and oxen—are found among these temples.

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About the same time, caverns were cut in the rock. The principal ones are those of the Trimurti, which has three cells, each containing an image of a god; the cave of Durga, in which are carved Vishnu on the serpent Sheshanag and Durga combating the demon Maheshasura; and the most important is that of Varaha (whose peristyle is adorned with pillars supported by kneeling lions), which is decorated with four bas-reliefs of the goddesses Lakshmi and Durga, and the Varaha and Trivikrama incarnations of Vishnu.

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The most distinguished relief is the one carved into the living rock that depicts the descent of the Ganga to the earth; the water which gushes from a natural fissure in the rock represents the Ganga. Many details—ascetics at prayer, pilgrims, animals of all kinds heading towards the sacred water—constitute the charm of this splendid composition. Along each side of the current of the Ganga are grouped ascetics, nagas and animals. The animals commonly depicted are deer and lions which must have abounded in the jungles of South India (Fig. 195). It is to be noted that tigers are not depicted.

The Pandyas

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The genealogy and chronology of the Pandyas, who ruled the extreme south, is very confused. The Pandyas of the post-Sangam age ruled from the seventh to tenth centuries. R. Sathianathaier thus fixes their chronology. Kadungon, A.D. 590-620; Maravarman Avanisulamani, A.D. 620-645; Sendan, A.D. 645-670; Arikesari Maravarman, A.D. 670-710; Kochchadaiyan Ranadhira, A.D. 710-740; and Maravarman Rajasimha, A.D. 740-765.² Hiuen Tsang describes the Malakuta or Pandya country as follows: 'It was a depot for sea-pearls; its people were 'black... harsh and impetuous, of mixed religions, indifferent to culture and only good at trade.' There were many Buddhist monasteries in ruins but only a few monks. The destruction of the ancient cultural tradition of Madura may be attributed to the Kalabhra occupation of the country.' Maravarman Rajasimha I was also a very powerful ruler. The Velvikudi grant mentions Rajasimha's renovation of the palaces and fortifications of Kudal (Madura), Vanji (the Chera capital) and Koli (Uraiyur).³

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² Majumdar, R.C. (Ed.), *The History and Culture of the Indian People : The Classical Age*, p. 267, 268

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³ Sastri, K.A.N. *The Pandyan Kingdom*, p. 41

The Hoysalas

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The Hoysalas who belonged to the clan of Yadavas were the feudatories of the Chalukyas. They ruled the central Mysore country, which served as a buffer between the Chalukya and Chola empires. The Hoysala Dynasty was established by Vishnuvardhana (A.D. 1111-1191), who is also known by the name of Bittiga. Originally a Jaina, he became a Vaishnava under the influence of Ramanuja. The Hoysala capital was Dvarasamudra (modern Halebid). The temples at Belur and Halebid with their elaborate carvings and bracket figures of damsels with bulging bosoms were constructed under the patronage of Bittiga.

The Kakatiyas

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The Kakatiyas were feudatories of the western Chalukyas. Prola II was the first independent Kakatiya ruler, and his territory comprised districts between the Godavari and the Krishna, and Warangal was his capital. Ganapati was the Kakatiya (A.D. 1199-1263) who led expeditions against Kalinga and western Andhra. Partap Rudra (A.D. 1295-1326) conquered Adoni and Raichur from the Yadavas. He was an efficient administrator and divided his territory into 77 Nayakships. Malik Kafur extinguished the Kakatiya kingdom in A.D. 1310, and Partap Rudra died as a prisoner of the Muslims.

The People

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Hiuen Tsang made very perceptive observations on the people in different States of South India, which are true even now after the lapse of so many centuries. He travelled from Bihar to Orissa, Andhra, Dravida, and Maharashtra.

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About Kalinga and its people he writes, ‘The forests and jungle are continuous for many hundred li. It produces the great tawny wild elephants, which are much prized by neighbouring provinces. The climate is burning; the disposition of the people vehement and impetuous. Though the men are mostly tough and uncivilised, they still keep their word and are trustworthy. The language is light and tripping, and their pronunciation distinct and correct.’

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On Andhra and on the people of Andhra, he commented, ‘The soil is rich and fertile; it is regularly cultivated, and produces abundance of cereals. The temperature is hot, and the manners of the people fierce and impulsive. The language and arrangement of sentences differ from Mid-India.’

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About Dravida, he states, ‘The soil is fertile and regularly cultivated, and produces abundance of grain. There are also many flowers and fruits. It produces precious gems and other articles. The climate is hot, the character of the people courageous. They are deeply attached to the principles of honesty and truth, and highly esteem learning; in respect of their language and written characters, they differ but little from those of Mid-India.’

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Hiuen Tsang visited Pulakesin at Nasik, A.D. 641-642. Describing the king he says, ‘His ideas are large and profound, and he extends widely his sympathy and benefactions.’ About Maharashtra, he commented, ‘The soil is rich and fertile; it is regularly cultivated and very productive. The climate is hot; the disposition of the people is honest and simple; they are tall of stature, and of a stern, vindictive character. To their benefactors they are grateful; to their enemies relentless. If they are insulted, they will risk their life to avenge themselves. If they are asked to help one in distress, they will forget themselves in their haste to render assistance. If they are going to seek revenge, they first give their enemy warning; then, each being armed, they attack each other with lances (spears). When one turns to flee, the other pursues him, but they do not kill a man down (a person who submits). If a general loses a battle, they do not inflict punishment, but present him with woman's clothes, and so he is driven to seek death for himself. The country provides for a band of champions to the number of several hundred. Each time they are about to engage in conflict they intoxicate themselves with wine, and then one man with lance in hand will meet ten thousand and challenge them in fight. If one of these champions meets a man and kills him, the laws of the country do not punish him. Every time they go forth they beat drums before them. Moreover, they inebriate many hundred head of elephants, and taking them out to fight, they themselves first drink their wine, and then, rushing forward in mass, they trample everything down, so that no enemy can stand before them.⁴

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⁴ Beal, S. *Chinese Accounts of India*, Vol. II, pp. 413, 421, 450, 453, 459

Society

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'The independent landholder, artisan or trader commanded greater esteem in society than officials of the State, states Sastri. In the enjoyment of the social amenities, there was a wide gap between the wealthy section of the nobles and the rest of the population. In spite of their poverty the brahmanas commanded the goodwill of the kings and respect of the people by their character and learning. Women enjoyed freedom in their movements and were held in great honour. Often a courtesan was a formidable rival to the wedded wife in the families of kings and nobles.

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'A select body of troops who shared a meal with the king at the time of his accession and were sworn to defend him with their lives on all occasions were known by different names in different courts—*Sahavasis* under the Chalukyas, *Velaikkarar* under the Cholas, *Garudas* under the Hoysalas, and *Apattudavigal* under the Pandyas.'

Education

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'The village teacher got a share of the village land besides other presents on festive and ceremonial occasions from the parents of the children. Skill in the crafts was passed from father to son. The building of a large temple or a palace not only gave employment to men of proved ability but also provided opportunity of discovering fresh talent. Artisans had an innate sense of beauty and some of them were very skilful. The literary quality of the inscriptions on temple walls and on copper plates attests that the level of the general education was fairly high. Adult education was carried on by means of oral expositions of the epics and *Puranas*. The singing of the devotional songs in temples by well-trained choirs of singers promoted religious fervour and aesthetic sense among the people. The *mathas*, *pallis* and *viharas* played a large part in education. The basic value of Sanskrit learning was realized and generous endowments were made to institutions to impart Sanskrit learning. The Brahmapuri at Belgaum, the Ghatika of Kanchi, and the college at Bahur are examples from the age of the Chalukyas of Badami and Pallavas of Kanchi. A minister of Krishna III endowed in A.D. 945 a college at Salatgi in Karnataka to which pupils came from different *janapadas*. There was a *ghatika* at Nagai (A.D. 1058) which had a provision for 200 Veda students and 50 students of Shastras. The institution had six teachers and a library. At Ennayiram in South Arcot, Chola Rajendra I endowed a college to take in two hundred and seventy junior students and seventy seniors with a teaching staff of fourteen persons. At Tirumukkudal (Chingleput District) there was a hostel for students and as revealed in the records of Virarajendra (A.D. 1067). At Tiruvaduturai there was a medical school and here the students were taught *Ashtangahridaya* and *Charakasamhita*. There was a school for the study of Panini's grammar at Tiruvorriyur. The Yadavas of Devagiri very much encouraged the study of law and astronomy.⁵

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⁵ Sastri, K.A.N. and Srinivasachari, G. *Advanced History of India*, 1970, pp. 303, 304

The Temple—The Seat of Religion and Education

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The temple played a pivotal role in the social and cultural life of the people. It was usually located in the centre of the habitation. Its pillared *mandapams* were crowded with pilgrims on the occasion of festivals. The pilgrims had a dip in the sacred tank which adjoined the temple. Leading to the *sanctum sanctorum* were many shops in which garlands and flowers were sold to devotees. In the evening the deity, Vishnu or Shiva, was worshipped with the lighting of oil-lamps amidst great religious fervour. The *deva-dasis*, the dancing-girls, also displayed their art to the accompaniment of an orchestra of drums and flutes. The temple was not only a place of worship, but also a school, where children of the villagers came to receive education in Sanskrit from the learned priests. It also provided employment to a large number of masons and stone-carvers, who carved the images which decorated the *mandapams* and *gopurams*. In times of civil unrest or war, the temple served as a citadel fortress in which people took shelter.

Coinage

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The Gupta coins show the influence of the Greek and Kushan coinage. The earliest Gupta gold coins follow the Kushan standard of about 121 grains and were known as *dinara* (from Latin *denarius*). Skandagupta's coins were struck on two standards, one following a local standard of 132 grains, and the other, probably the *suvarna* standard of 146.4 grains. In South India, foreign influence is hardly noticeable. Here, gold and copper were almost exclusively used, though silver was not altogether unknown. Roman coins—gold, silver and probably also copper—have been found in the south in such a large number that it is probable that they were actually used as currency in South India.

Trade Between India and China

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The T'ang period witnessed a great development of the sea-borne trade between India and China. An account written about A.D. 749 refers to the numerous merchantmen belonging to the Polomen, i.e. Brahmanas of India, and other countries, on the River of Canton. The same account refers to three Brahmana monasteries at Canton where Brahmanas were residing. It is evident that Hindu merchants sailed in large number to this Chinese port, and had built temples there for worship during their stay. According to *Harshacharita*, Chinese cuirasses were used by the chiefs of Harsha's army. The discovery of coins of the T'ang Dynasty in South India may also be regarded as an interesting relic of the commercial relations between India and China during this period.

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The foreign ships in Canton are said to be 18 to 21 metres deep. Another Chinese work says that the foreign ships visiting Canton "were very large, and so high out of the water that ladders, several tens of feet in length, had to be used to get aboard."⁸ Such a ship is depicted in an eighth-century relief of Borobuddur in Java (Fig. 196).

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⁸ Majumdar, A.K. (Ed.), *The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Classical Age* Bombay, 1970, pp. 626, 627

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In another Borobuddur relief a man is shown ploughing (Fig. 203, *top*). The wooden plough he is handling resembles a plough still in use in Jorhat, Assam (Fig. 203, *bottom*).

Exports

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Cardamom (*Elettaria cardamomum*), produced in southern India, was highly prized in the Middle East. Costus-root (*Saussurea lappa*) was, like cinnamon and cardamom, processed in Syria and was used as incense.

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Then came the different kinds of nard, of which spikenard was the most costly (*nalada* in Sanskrit), but which included *Cymbopogon schoenanthus* and *Vetiveria zizanioides* (*Andropogon muricatus*). Their roots and their leaves were used in perfumery, in cooking and in medicine; the oil extracted from the plants was so precious that it was kept in small jars of alabaster or onyx. Southern India had the competition of Ethiopia and southern Arabia in the preparation of this aromatic essence. Mention should also be made of cloves (*Syzygium aromaticum*); sesame (*Sesamum indicum*); indigo (which was used not only for paints and dyes but also for the preparation of medicines), varieties of barberry (*Berberis floribunda, B. aristata, B. lycium*); opium and rhubarb were exported. Sugar was exported in small quantities, as were rice (*vrihi* in Sanskrit, *arisi* in Tamil), millet and oats. These commodities were in demand by Indian expeditions abroad. *Ghee* (clarified butter) was exported to East Africa. Fruits, such as coconuts, bananas, melons, peaches and apricots, and vegetables, such as cucumber and onion, reached the Mediterranean ports from India.

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Other merchandise sent abroad consisted of animals: talking parrots, tame monkeys, pheasants, snakes and elephants, all of which found places in the private zoos of Western kings and emperors. Since sea-travel affected them adversely, they were usually transported overland by caravans.

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Slaves, too, constituted a profitable item of trade. The major part of it was under the control of the Arabs, who furnished Greek women to the Indians and Indian women to the Greeks, the greater the distance of their supposed place of origin the higher being the price to the buyer. Most of the women brought to India in this way were dancers or musicians, or else were imported specially to act as military guards in the royal harems.⁷

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⁷ Auboyer, J. *Daily Life in Ancient India*, pp. 84–86

Imports

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China sent musk, tung-oil, amber, cinnabar, raw and woven silk, hemp matting and cloth, ceramics, lacquered and copper objects, wooden combs, paper, parasols, iron cooking-vessels, sieves, needles and saddles. From the Khmer country, many valuable products were imported to supplement India's own output, particularly sandalwood, teak and aloes, cardamom, beeswax, kapok and kingfishers' feathers. Sumatra and Java furnished gold and musk. The Malay Peninsula exported silver and tin (called 'white lead' in those times) from its well-developed mines; it also sold the finest nutmeg, logwood and ivory.

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During the entire period covered by the expansion of Rome, products of Mediterranean origin continued to come into India. These included red coral from Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, the Balearic Islands, Spain and North Africa; copper, tin, antimony, realgar, silver vessels and lamps, bronze containers; yellow amber, which came also from the Baltic and was usually exchanged for precious stones; Egyptian emeralds; glassware from Alexandria, Tyre and Sidon.⁸

Manasollasa of Someshvara

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Here a reference may be made to the Sanskrit encyclopaedia, the *Manasollasa*, composed by Someshvara (*c.* A.D. 1127), the Chalukya king. It deals with subjects like drawing, painting, casting of metal images, iconography, cookery, cock-fighting, hunting, fishing and gardening. It also deals with the blending of perfumes, which were used for royal baths as well as for the ritual of worship. Its fourteenth chapter deals with zoology of fishes. Thirty-four varieties of fishes are named, and their habitat and food are described. Someshvara also describes lines, hooks and baits. *Manasollasa* is rich in factual and deductive knowledge which in some respect remains unsurpassed even now’, comments Hora.⁹

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⁹ Hora, S.L. Knowledge of the Ancient Hindus concerning Fish and Fisheries of India—*Matsyavinoda* or a chapter on Angling in *Manasollasa* by king Someshvara (A.D. 1127), *JASB Lett.*, 17, 1951

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‘While describing the horses being made ready for the royal polo, Someshvara refers to “*Padadharai*”, or stirrups of gold, hanging down on both the sides of the horse. The use of the stirrup in the game of polo as played at the Chalukya court about A.D. 1130 is important as it proves the currency of the stirrup in Indian horsemanship more than 800 years ago.

Crops

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With the expansion in irrigation, rice cultivation was extended over a larger area. Millets continued to be cultivated in the rain-fed areas of the Deccan and Mysore plateaus. There is, however, scant mention of crops in history. Perhaps people took them for granted. There were possibly no food shortages as population was sparse.

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The names of crops are mentioned in relation to the land revenue payable to the government and the rent payable to the land-owner. These are paddy, gingelly, millets and sugarcane. The fruits mentioned are mango, coconut, plantain and jack-fruit. The vegetables are ginger, pumpkin and yams.

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We come across a specific mention of an arecanut garden. A stone-slab inscription, A.D. 1028, at Hosur in the Gadag Taluka of the Dharwar District of the reign of Jagadekamalladeva I records the grant of an arecanut garden and house sites by Aycha-gavunda to the *basadi* constructed by him in memory of his wife.¹⁰

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¹⁰ Gode, P.K. *Studies in Indian Cultural History*, Vol. I, p. 116

Cattle

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*Hallikar cattle.* The predominant breed of cattle in south India is the Hallikar. In the well-known sculpture in the so-called Gopis Cave at Mahabalipuram, Krishna is shown milking a cow (Fig. 197). This sculpture relates to the Pallava period of the seventh century. The cow with long horns pointing backwards is of the Hallikar breed. This shows that the Hallikar is an ancient breed of cattle. In the Halebid temple is also the famous sculpture of Krishna holding the mountain Govardhana. The cattle sheltering below the mountain resemble those of the Hallikar breed (Fig. 199).

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The Hallikar cattle are grey to dark grey in colour. Their horns emerge near each other from the top of the poll and are carried backwards, each in a straight line for nearly half their length and then with a gentle and graceful sweep bend forwards, usually lightly reclining inwards towards their points, which are usually black-tipped and sharp. When the animal is feeding with its head downwards, the horns almost touch the neck in front of the hump. The eyes are small, clear and intelligent and in some cases bloodshot. The ears are small, tapering to a point and are carried firmly in a horizontal position. The neck is long, thin for the size of the cattle, and sinewy. The dewlap is thin and moderately developed. The hump is also moderately developed, and in the bulls it is around eight inches (20 centimetres) high. The sheath is very small and close to the body. The forequarters are well developed and the legs are strong and set apart, permitting good chest development. The hooves are strong, small, tightly set and black. The back is straight and strong.¹¹

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¹¹ Joshi, N.R. *Zebu Cattle of India and Pakistan*, p. 209

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The Hallikar is a draft breed. The bullocks are strong, spirited, quick and steady in the fields and on the road. The cows are poor milkers. This breed is found in the Tumkur, Hassan and Mysore districts of Karnataka. Young cattle are kept in large herds almost in a semiwild state. They are extremely unruly and it is only after many months of patient training that they develop into bullocks. A herd of the Hallikars is shown in Fig. 198. The pointed horns of the Hallikars, sloping backwards, lend character to this photograph.

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*Ongole cattle.* The Ongole breed of cattle, found in the Nellore and Guntur districts of Andhra Pradesh is valued by the farmers of South India. The bullocks are muscular, long-limbed, large and heavy. They are white, with dark-grey markings on the head, neck and hump. There are black points on the knee, pasterns of fore- and hindlegs. The forehead is broad between the eyes and the horns are stumpy. The bullocks are powerful and are suitable for heavy ploughing and for draft. The cows are good milkers. A large sculpture of the Nandi Bull at Mysore is modelled after the Ongole breed (Fig. 200). An Ongole bull from the Guntur District of Andhra Pradesh is shown in Fig. 201 for comparison. But for its stumpy horns, it resembles the Hariana breed. Possibly, it derives from the Hariana breed as a result of a mutation.

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HORSE TRADE WITH ARABIA FROM A.D. 800 TO A.D. 1300

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One of the greatest gifts of Arabia to the world is the Arabian horse. It is spirited and intelligent, is very strong and is able to stand galloping for hours, and lives up to the ripe age of thirty-five years or so. Its development by the Bedouins of Arabia is a great achievement in animal- Fig. 194. Mango, a favourite fruit of the Indians. The couples shown standing below the branches of fruit-bearing mangoes are (right) from Badami (A.D. 578) and (left) from Pattadakal, Bijapur District, Karnataka, seventh century breeding. The success of the Arab armies in Sind was partly due to their horses. This factor created great interest in these horses among the Hindu rulers of India. Arabian, Turkish and other foreign breeds of horses were imported into India from A.D. 800 to 1300. This trade appears to have attained a phenomenal proportion in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The Indian authorities of this period agree in assigning the first rank in their classified list of horses to the foreign breeds (specially those of "Vanayu" or Arabia and Persia) and the lowest rank to the indigenous breeds, such as those of Trigartta, Gurjara, Avanti, Saurashtra and Pariyatra.

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Fig. 195. Relief showing the descent of Ganga, Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu, Pallava, seventh century. A number of animals, including deer and lions, are shown

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Fig. 196. A ship with sails. South Indians sailed in such vessels from India to Java during the Chola period. Borobuddur, Java, eighth century

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Fig. 197. Krishna milking a cow. Mahabalipuram, Pallava, seventh century. The cow is of the Hallikar breed

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Fig. 198. A herd of Hallikar cattle in Karnataka

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Fig. 199. Krishna holding the mountain Govardhana. Hoysaleshwara Temple, Halebid, Karnataka. Hoysala, twelfth century. The cattle sheltering under the mountain are of the Hallikar breed

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Fig. 200. Sculpture of the Nandi Bull, Mysore. It is based on the Ongole breed of Andhra Pradesh

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Fig. 201. An Ongole bull from the Guntur District of Andhra Pradesh, with energetic body, white skin, large dewlap and stumpy horns

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Fig. 202. A panel depicting a Persian wheel from Mandor, Rajasthan, eleventh century. This is the earliest record of a Persian wheel in India. It is pre-Islamic and proves that it is an Indian wheel and not an import from Iran (Courtesy: Jodhpur Museum)

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Fig. 203. Top, A ploughman. The plough is similar to the Indian desi plough. Borobuddur Java, eighth century; Bottom, The plough from Jorhat, Assam, resembles the plough shown in the Borobuddur sculpture above

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HATHI MUNA CAG HALS SANHA PHALLA CHOW MUNA PLOUGH

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The following account of the horse-trade about A.D. 1290 at the Malabar Port of Kayal was recorded by S.K. Aiyangar.

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Kayal was a port at the mouth of Tamaraparani in the Gulf of Manar not far from the far-famed Korkai. There was a prominent trade-settlement at Kayal—about A.D. 1290, where an agency was established by an Arab Chieftain, Maliku-Islam Jamal-ud-din, ruler of Kis. According to Wassaf, about this time ten thousand horses were imported into Kayal and other ports of India of which one thousand and four hundred were of Jamal-ud-din's own breed. The average cost of each horse was 220 dinars of 'red gold'. The cost of even those that died on the way was paid by the Pandya King for whom they were imported. The Arab agent had his headquarters at Kayal. It indicates that he was the agent-general for the import trade of the Arab horses in this part of the country. The trade of this region in those days was very great, both in volume and value. In the words of Wassaf "Ma'bar extends in length from Kulam to Nilawar (Nellore) nearly three hundred parasangs along the sea-coast, and in the language of the country the king is called Dewar, which signifies the lord of empire. The curiosities of Chin and Machin, and the products of Hind and Sind laden on large ships (which they call junks) sailing like mountains with the wings of winds on the surface of the water, always arrived there. The wealth of the islands of the Persian Gulf in particular and in part the beauty and adornments of other countries, from 'Irak and Khurasan as far as Rum and Europe are derived from Ma'bar, which is so situated as to be the Key of Hind."¹²

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¹² Gode, P.K. *Studies in Indian Literary History*, Vol. III, pp. 179, 180

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Marco Polo says, A.D. 1300, that Arabian horses were "greatly in demand in southern India and were shipped there from Aden and Hurmuz. He claims that every year 2,000 horses were imported by the five rajas and that each horse cost 500 dinars. The Mongol historian Rashid-ud-din (A.D. 1318) confirms this import of a great number of horses from the Persian Gulf to the Malabar.¹³

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¹³ Jairazbhoy, R.A. *Foreign Influence in Ancient India*, p. 171

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The necessity for this extravagant demand from the Indians for the horses from the West is traced by the foreign observers chiefly to the Indians' ignorance of the art of managing the animals. According to Wassaf, the Indians were so ignorant of training horses that even the best animals under their management were soon disabled for active work. Marco Polo, while lamenting the waste of a great part of the wealth of the country in the purchase of horses, gives three reasons for the same. Firstly, no horses were bred in the country. Secondly, the Indians had no farriers, and the foreign merchants prevented any farrier from going to that country for fear of losing their highly profitable trade. Thirdly, and lastly, the Indians, in their ignorance of the treatment of horses, fed them with boiled rice and boiled meat and various other cooked food.¹⁴

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¹⁴ Majumdar, R.C. History and Culture of the Indian People, Vol. IV, p. 523

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THE CHOLAS

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A.D. 985—A.D. 1205

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THEIR IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

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The Cholas ushered in the most glorious phase in the history of South India in the tenth century. They unified the warring States of South India, and improved their agriculture by building up new types of irrigation systems. The prosperity which resulted from irrigated agriculture ultimately led to efflorescence in art. Magnificent temples were built, and beautiful images were cast in bronze and carved in stone.

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The Chola King Rajaraja I (A.D. 985-1013) was a dynamic leader. He subjugated the Pandyas and Cheras of Kerala. He sent a naval expedition to Sri Lanka and conquered the northern half of the island, which became a Chola province. He conquered the bulk of the Mysore country, and the Eastern Chalukya kingdom of Vengi became his protectorate. The Western Chalukya kingdom was next subjugated.

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Rajendra Chola (A.D. 1014-1044) succeeded his father Rajaraja I, A.D. 1014. He completed the conquest of Sri Lanka. The Pandya and Kerala territories were integrated into a separate viceroyalty with headquarters at Madura. He defeated the King of Kalinga. As an act of devotion to Shiva, he built the Brihadisvara Temple at Tanjavur. In one of the niches of the temple he is shown sitting at the feet of Shiva, who is winding a garland around his head. The art of temple-building and metal and stone sculpture attained a high level during his reign.

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The next Chola ruler of importance is Kulottunga I (A.D. 1070-1118). The extent of his territory is shown in Fig. 204. To promote trade, an embassy of seventy-two merchants was sent to China in A.D. 1077. The Chola kingdom also maintained diplomatic relations with the rulers of Burma and Kambojas in Indo-China.

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Vikrama Chola (A.D. 1118) remodelled the Temple of Nataraja at Chidambaram and also improved the Ranganatha Temple of Srirangam. Kulottunga II (A.D. 1135-1173) reconstructed the famous Chidambaram Temple, in which dance poses based on Bharata’s *Natyashastra* are shown. Kulottunga III (A.D. 1178-1205) was the last ruler of the Chola Dynasty.

Irrigation

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(i) *Anicuts*. Irrigation systems by building *anicuts* across rivers, and the chains of tanks in the courses of small streams are the proud achievements of southern India. As already stated, the Chola king Karikala (*c.* A.D.

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THE CHOLA EMPIRE UNDER KULOTTUNGA I C 1100

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Fig. 204. Map showing the Chola Empire under Kulottunga I, c. 1100

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190) and his successors constructed the irrigation canals Vennara and Arasil, which take off from the Cauvery.

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The Cauvery and its tributaries support an extensive system of irrigation by means of channels drawn from dams, called the *anicuts* (Kanarese *ane katte*, dam, dyke or embankment), which retain the upper waters at a high level and permit only the overflow to pass downstream. These works are of great antiquity. Tradition attributes to the Chola kings the construction of the famous *anicuts* across the River Cauvery in the Tanjore District. The most famous of the Chola public works is the Great *Anicut* below the island of Srirangam, consisting of a massive dam of unhewn stone, 329 metres long and from 12 to 18 metres broad. The large Talkad *Anicut*, the lowest one down on the Cauvery, was constructed in the tenth century. The most recent, with a few exceptions, are not less than three centuries old. "The dreams which revealed to favoured mortals the plans of these ingenious works", says Wilks, "have each their appropriate legend, which is related with reverence and received with implicit belief." The channels, thence drawn, meander over the adjoining tracts of country on each bank, following all the sinuosities of the ground, the total length running in Karnataka being upwards of 1,915 kilometres.

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(ii) Chain-tanks in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. The topography of Telangana and Karnataka is well suited for the construction of storage reservoirs. Telangana, where most of the irrigation tanks are located, is known as "The Land of Thousand Tanks". A special feature of the tanks in these tracts is their construction in series, by bunding the same valley at several points. The surplus water escaping over the waste-weir from one tank feeds the tank lower down and so on. Not only does the surplus water escape into it but the surplus irrigation water from the fields under the upper tank seeps through the subsoil and flows into the lower tank. Owing to the porous nature of the soil and the sloping terrain, often large quantities of water are drained into the lower reservoir in this manner. This improves the tank duty. During the dry crop season, when the waste-weirs do not surplus, the effect is quite marked.

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The main advantage of the series of tank irrigation is that the benefits of irrigation are distributed over the entire watershed. In a big storage tank the catchment area does not derive any benefit and the entire irrigation is localized downstream of the tank.

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The disadvantage of the series of tanks is the breaching of the entire system during heavy rains. If due to excessive floods any tank in the chain breaches, the tank lower down is unable to bear the strain of the rushing waters from above and it also breaches. This process continues and the entire system downstream is destroyed.

Tanks in Tamil Nadu

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The Pallava King Mahendravarman I excavated the first tank in the Tamil country in early seventh century. His great-grandson is credited with the construction of the Paramesvara-tataka late in the seventh century. The land irrigated by the tank was divided into twenty-five parts, five of which were meant for public purposes. The Tiraiyaneri Tank referred to in an inscription of Nandivarman Pallava (eighth century A.D.) was probably built by an earlier king. Another inscription of Nandivarman refers to water-levers (*jalayantra*). The tank at Uttaramallur, called Vayiramega-tataka, was constructed by one of the Pallava kings. King Dantivikramavarman (ninth century) excavated a tank at Gudimallam in North Arcot. King Kampavarman of the Ganga-Pallava line constructed one at Ukkal. The tank Kanakavallieri at Solapuram dated from the ninth century. The Kaveripak Tank, the most extensive in the district, with a bund about 6.4 kilometres long stretching from north to south, was dug about the latter half of the ninth century. To this period also belong the Chitrameghatataka in Arcot as well as the sluices of the tank at Tundalam.

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In the tenth century, a number of tanks were excavated, e.g. the Chola-varidhi by Parantaka I, the tanks at Sodiyambakkam and Takkolam in Arcot, the feeding-channel of the tank at Vinnamangalam, the tanks at Tanagunda (Karnataka) and Chikballapur (Kolar), the tank referred to in the inscription of Rajakesarivarman and Parantaka I, as well as the Uyyakkondan channel attributed to Rajaraja I or one of his ancestors. An inscription of Rajendra Chola I refers to a tank called Madhurantakapperi. The ‘Big Tank’ at Bahur near Pondicherry mentioned in an inscription of Rajaraja I (A.D. 985-1013) belongs to this period. In the eleventh century, the tank at Arikesarimangalam was excavated, as referred to in an inscription of Rajaraja I. In the twelfth century, the tank at Anamkonda, attributed to the Kakatiya minister Beta, and the tank at Sindhuvalli in Karnataka, were excavated during the reign of Kulottunga.¹

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¹ Gupta, K.M. *The Land System in South India*, pp. 219, 200, 221

Tank System in Karnataka

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There are no natural lakes in Karnataka, but the streams which gather from the hillsides and fertilize the valleys are, at every favourable point, embanked in such a manner as to form a series or chain of reservoirs, called tanks, the outflow from one at a higher level supplying the next at a lower level, and so on, all down the course of the stream. These tanks, varying in size from small ponds to extensive lakes, are dispersed throughout the country and number 38,080. One of the largest tanks is Sulekera, 64 kilometres in circumference. Other large ones are the Ayyankere, Madagakere, Masur-Madagakere, Vyasa-samudra, Ramasagara, and Moti Talab.

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Major Sankey, one of the first Engineers of the Mysore State, who devoted his attention to the systematic repairs of tanks, stated that “to such an extent has the principle of storage been followed that it would now require some ingenuity to discover a site within this great area suitable for a new tank. While restorations are of course feasible, any absolutely new work of this description would, within this area, be almost certainly found to cut off the supply of another, lower down the same basin, and to interfere with vested interests.”²

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² Rao, C.H. *Mysore Gazetteer*, Vol. III, 1929, p. 157

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Although there are many isolated tanks in particular localities, the vast majority are constructed on a connected system of streams and their feeders which are abundant in the undulating plateau of Karnataka. In fact, most of these tanks have been classified according to the main valleys, sub-valleys, etc. As an instance of the chain of tanks may be mentioned the Palar system, which has one thousand tanks in the valley, the last one being the large Ramasagara Tank.

Maintenance of Tanks

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The village assembly and especially its executive committee, the Tank Supervision Committee (*eri-variyam*), looked after the maintenance of the irrigation works of a village, by repairing breaches and dams, removing silt and regulating the distribution of water-supply.

Cites (18)