A History of Agriculture in India v1.c4: Acknowledgements
A History of Agriculture in India v1.c4
- Language
- English
Acknowledgements
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FOR a work of this nature, in which a multi-disciplinary approach is involved, co-operation from many quarters is necessary. I am particularly grateful to Dr Vishnu-Mittre, of the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknow, for providing reprints of his papers and photographs of food-grains discovered from archaeological sites in India. I am also grateful to Shri M. N. Deshpande, Director-General of the Archaeological Survery of India; Shri B. K. Thapar, Additional Director-General, Archaeological Survey of India; Dr B. B. Lal, Director of the Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Simla; and Dr H. D. Sankalia, Deccan College, Pune, for advice on various problems. Dr Sankalia has been generous enough to lend a number of illustrations including reconstructions of chalcolithic villages in Maharashtra. Shri Thapar permitted the use of maps showing the spread of Neolithic cultures. Dr Y. D. Sharma and Shri S. R. Rao generously provided illustrations, and also rare reprints of their papers. I am particularly grateful to Dr V. S. Wakankar, Vikram University, Ujjain, a pioneer in the study of rock paintings, who generously provided sketches of rock paintings.
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Out of the historians I am grateful to Dr Ram Sharan Sharma, Professor of History, University of Delhi, for his advice. He is the first scholar in India to provide an interpretation of the history of the country in the context of its material culture.
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I am grateful to Dr A. P. Khatri, Scientist, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, for providing illustrations of Neolithic tools. For illustrations of crops and domestic animals I have relied on the photo libraries of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, Indian Council of Agricultural Research and the Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. These institutions have talented photographers, viz. Hari Kishan Gorkha, Gurcharan Singh and S. K. Rode. I am grateful to the Directors of the National Museum, New Delhi, Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, Bombay, Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad, and Chandigarh Museum for providing photographs of paintings. Miss R. Vanaja, Keeper, Numismatics and Epigraphy, National Museum, New Delhi, was kind enough to provide photographs of ancient coins and seals.
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For ¹⁴carbon dates of important archaeological sites I have relied on the work of Dr O. P. Agrawal, Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad.
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Dr Gurdev S. Khush, Head of the Plant Breeding Department, International Rice Research Institute, Philippines, was kind enough to provide rare books not available in India. I am grateful to Mr Edward Wegman, the UNESCO Press, Paris, for permission to reproduce four maps from History of Mankind: Cultural and Scientific Development, Vol. 1, "Prehistory and the Beginnings of Civilization", and to Prof. dr ir J. Doorenbos, Chairman, Editorial Committee, Wageningen Redactiecommissie, Mededelingen van de Landbouwhogeschool, Netherlands, for permission to reproduce a map on the distribution of the species of Cicer.
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I wish to thank the following publishers for permission to quote from their books: Cambridge University Press—The Indus Civilization by Sir Mortimer Wheeler; Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd—The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India in Historical Outline by D. D. Kosambi; Cassell Ltd—Prehistoric India by Stuart Piggot; Oxford University Press—Harsha: A Political Study by D. Devahuti; Penguin Books Ltd—The Birth of Indian Civilization: India and Pakistan Before 500 B. C. by Bridget and Raymond Allchin; Hutchinson Publishing Group Ltd—A History of Domesticated Animals by F. E. Zeuner; the Dryden Press, Inc., and Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York—Fossil Men by M. Boule and H. V. Vallois; Allied Publishers Private Ltd, New Delhi—Advanced History of India by K. A. Nilakanta Sastri and G. Srinivasa-chari; M. S. Srinivas—Kautilya's Arthasastra by R. Shamasastry; Vikas Publishing House Private Ltd, New Delhi—Essay on South India by Burton Stein; Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay—The History and Culture of Indian People, Vols IV and V, by R.C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker; and Massachusetts University Press—Agricultural Origins and Dispersals by Carl Sauer.
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For cartography I have relied on the services of Mr D. S. Tiwana of the Punjab Agricultural University, Mr Mehar Singh of the Department of Geography, Panjab University, Chandigarh, and the Surveyor-General of India.
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I have been generously assisted by Mr T. P. Saxena, Librarian of the Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana; Dr J. S. Sharma, University Librarian, Panjab University Library, Chandigarh; Mr Rama Tirth, University Librarian, Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar; Mr S. P. Phadnis, Head, Library Services, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi; Mr L. Ramachandran, Librarian, Haryana Agricultural University, Hissar; and the Librarian of the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore. Mr T. P. Saxena also prepared the index. For typing the manuscript and for general assistance I record my appreciation of the devoted work of Mr Ram Lal Sharma, my Personal Assistant-cum-Research Fellow, who worked indefatigably. But for his assistance it would not have been possible for me to handle an intricate work of this nature. Dr Kishan Singh Bedi was kind enough to edit the typescript. Mr M. K. Bardhan and Mr D. Hazra designed the title cover, and Mr O. P. Gulhati prepared the layout of the illustrations. For editorial work I am indebted to Messrs P. L. Jaiswal, S. N. Tata and R. S. Gupta. Mr T. C. S. Sastry, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, was of great help in standardizing botanical nomenclature. Mr K. E. Sankaran gave many useful suggestions. Mr Krishan Kumar looked after the production of this book ably and saw it through the press with a sense of dedication. In this work he was assisted by Shri J. B. Mehra.
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The first of these, the *Gospel of the Hebrews*, was used by the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and was probably a version of the Gospel of Matthew, though it contained some traditions not found in our canonical books. The *Gospel of the Egyptians* was used by the ascetic sects of Egypt, and was marked by a strong tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. The *Gospel of Peter* was used by the Docetists, and taught that Christ did not really suffer, but only appeared to do so.
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These gospels, and others like them, were not accepted by the Church as a whole, and were gradually lost or suppressed. The Church, however, felt the need for a standard collection of writings that would serve as a guide for faith and practice. This led to the formation of the New Testament canon, a process that took several centuries to complete.
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The first step in this process was the collection of the letters of Paul, which were widely circulated among the churches. Then came the four Gospels, which were accepted as the authoritative accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles and the other epistles were gradually added, and finally the Book of Revelation.
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By the end of the second century, the core of the New Testament was generally accepted by the Church. The process of canonization was not a formal act of a council, but rather a gradual recognition by the churches of the writings that were most valuable for their life and worship. It was only in the fourth century that the canon was formally closed by the councils of the Church.
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The formation of the New Testament canon was a crucial event in the history of the Church. It provided a standard of faith and practice that helped to unify the Church and to protect it from the influence of heretical sects. It also ensured that the teachings of Jesus and the apostles would be preserved for future generations.
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CHAPTER 13. HARAPPAN AGRICULTURE 156 Cultivation of Wheat, Barley and Cotton
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CHAPTER 14. DOMESTIC ANIMALS OF THE HARAPPANS AND POUL- 183 TRY AND FISH
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CHAPTER 15. BURZAHOM — A NEOLITHIC RELICT CULTURE 216 IN A REFUGE AREA c. 2375 B.C.
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CHAPTER 16. NEOLITHIC AND CHALCOLITHIC SETTLEMENTS IN 239 SOUTH INDIA 2295 B.C.–1300 B.C. Cultivation of Millets and Pulses and Discovery of Silk
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CHAPTER 17. NEOLITHIC CULTURE OF EASTERN INDIA 262 2000 B.C. Cultivation of Rice, Bananas, Sugarcane and Yams
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CHAPTER 18. THE EARLY ARYANS—A BRONZE AGE PEOPLE 278 Domestication of the Horse, and Migration to India
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CHAPTER 19. THE VEDIC AGE 290 1500 B.C.–1000 B.C. Pastoralism, Hunting and Cultivation of Barley
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CHAPTER 20. THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD 301 1000 B.C.–600 B.C. Yajur-Veda, Samhitas, and Brahmanas; The Age of Iron and Painted Grey Ware; The Invention of the Iron Ploughshare and Axe; Clearance of Jungles, Expansion of Cultivation
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CHAPTER 21. THE BUDDHIST PERIOD 323 Sixth Century B.C. Birth of Buddhism and Jainism; Sacred Groves and Tree-Worship; Expansion of Cultivation in Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh
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CHAPTER 22. THE MAGADHAN EMPIRE 340 Fourth Century B.C. Civic Life, Artisans, Merchants and Money
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CHAPTER 23. RURAL ECONOMY AND ADMINISTRATION OF LAND 352 IN THE MAGADHAN EMPIRE
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CHAPTER 24. AGRICULTURE IN THE MAURYAN AGE 360 322 B.C.–232 B.C.
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CHAPTER 25. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN THE MAURYAN AGE 365
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CHAPTER 26. ASOKA PROMOTES ARBORICULTURE AND HORTI- 379 CULTURE