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A History of Agriculture in India v1.c40: Chapter 35. Observations of Medhatithi, Parashara and Kashyapa on Agriculture

A History of Agriculture in India v1.c40

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English

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Chapter 35. Observations of Medhatithi, Parashara and Kashyapa on Agriculture

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NINTH CENTURY TO ELEVENTH CENTURY

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The sources of information on agriculture in India during the period from the ninth to eleventh centuries are the writings of Medhatithi, Parashara and Kashyapa and early Arab writers.

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Medhatithi was a Kashmiri scholar who lived during the period from A.D. 825 to 900, and is known for his commentary on the *Manu-Smriti*. He stresses the need of irrigation works to make people less dependent on rains. As regards taxation, he states that taxes should be light on small holdings, and heavy on those which yield large profits. About drinking, hunting and gambling, being a man with practical common sense, he says that it is neither possible nor desirable to prohibit them.

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Medhatithi's view of the relative status of different occupations is similar to that of Manu and he views agriculture as a profession with disfavour. He says that among the Vaishya's occupations, agriculture is the worst for a Brahmana, then comes trade, and next the tending of cattle and so forth.

Soil

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In *Abhidhanaratnamala*, soils were classified as fertile (*urvara*), barren (*irina*), fallow (*khila*), desert (*maru*), and excellent (*mritsa* or *mritsna*), as well as those green with grass (*sadvala*) or abounding in reeds (*nadvala*), those which were black or yellow, and those which owed their fertility to rivers or rains. The *Abhidhanaratnamala* further states that different kinds of fields were selected for different classes of crops. It includes terms for fields producing several varieties of rice (*vrihi*, *sali*, *kodrava*, and a variety ripening in 60 days), of beans (*mudga* and *masha*), of oilseeds (sesame and linseed) as well as those producing hemp, barley and vegetables.

Implements

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Machines (*yantra*) for crushing sugarcanes are mentioned in a description of the winter season in the *Upamitibhavaprapanchakatha*. Fields irrigated with Persian wheels (*arahata*) and with leather buckets (*charsa*) are mentioned in a record of A.D. 946. Again, it appears from Medhatithi that the Vaishya (the agriculturist *par excellence*) was expected to know, among other things, what seed was to be sown thickly and what thinly, what soil was suitable for a particular kind of seed, and what harvest was expected from a special variety of seed.

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The early Arab writers of the ninth and tenth centuries refer to the fertility of the soil and the cultivation of grain and fruits in Western India. Some cities in Gujarat grew mangoes, coconuts, lemons, and rice in great quantities. One such city also grew sugarcane and teak-trees. Malabar produced pepper and bamboo.

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The *Abhidhanaratnamala* mentions a large variety of cereals and other foodgrains along with their synonyms. The list comprises *sali* rice of three varieties, coarse grain (*kodrava*), mustard (*sarshapa*) of two varieties, pepper or saffron or "Italian millet" (*priyangu*), wild sesamum (*jartila*), wild rice (*nivara*), as well as pulses of four different kinds (*masura*, *kalaya*, *ralla*, and *adhaka*). A group of seventeen articles (including rice and barley) is included by the *Smritis* in the category of grain (*dhanya*). Again, Medhatithi mentions sugar-candy (*ikshukhanda*) and sugar (*sarkara*), along with sweetmeats and milk products. The excellence of *pundra* sugarcane which yielded juice even without a pressing instrument in contrast to a variety of sugarcane (*kosakara*) with its mass of flowers, is pointed out in a verse of the *Kavyamimamsa*. Similarly, the *Vishnudharmottara*, gives a list of five kinds of grains (*dhanya*), viz. barley, wheat, paddy, sesamum, and edible grains of two varieties (*kangu* or *syamaka* and *chinaka*). Among other agricultural products, camphor and *aguru* are given as examples of costly articles by Medhatithi.¹

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¹ Majumdar, R.C. *The History and Culture of the Indian People*, Vol. IV, *The Age of Imperial Kanauj*, pp. 399 to 406

Parashara

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Who is the author of *Krishi-Parashara*? Was the author of the *Krishi-Parashara* the same as the author of the well-known *Parashara-smriti*, regarded as the highest authority on agriculture in the Kali Age. Whereas there is no external evidence on the matter, the internal evidence fails to prove anything conclusively. According to Raychaudhuri, ‘One may safely place the author of the *Krishi-Parashara* in the period between A.D. 950 and 1100.

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The *Krishi-Parashara* deals with the then existing knowledge and practice relating to agriculture such as soil classification and land-use, manuring, rotation of crops, irrigation, tillage implements, protection of crops from pests and diseases, and agricultural meteorology. It also deals with the care of draught animals and the grazing of cattle.

Kashyapa

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Kashyapa, in Indian tradition, appears to be an appellation to different personages who belonged to different periods from the Vedic period onwards. Some among them attained pre-eminence in the fields of medicine, astrology, plant science and architecture.

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Varahamihira (*c.* fifth century) in *Brhat Samhita* mentions Kashyapa versed in astrology among the three other *rishis*, namely Parashara, Garga and Vajra, as prognosticator of rainfall. Bhattotpala (tenth century), the commentator of the *Brhat Samhita*, frequently cited Kashyapa’s views on various aspects of plants while commenting on the chapter entitled ‘Vrikshyurveda’. If these two Kashyapas of the *Brhat Samhita* are the one and the same person, then the probable date of Kashyapa versed in plant science dates before the fifth century. If not, Kashyapa the plant-scientist appears to belong to a period before the tenth century. The *Krishi-sukti*, a comprehensive text on agricultural science, is attributed to Kashyapa. It is likely that he was a native of Kosala, for he shows keen insight into rice cultivation and also mentions Kosala by name when describing rice culture. He also mentions tropical crops, such as arecanut, coconut and bread-fruit.

Importance of Agriculture

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Unlike Medhatithi, Kashyapa realizes the importance of agriculture and advocates its practice by the rulers, their advisers and officials so that they realize the difficulties which the farmers face. Says Kashyapa, ‘Both bipeds and quadrupeds on the face of the earth would face misery if there were no cultivation. Hence, for pleasing the gods and protecting the people the king should take keen interest in agriculture. Agriculture should also be practised by priests, Brahmanas and ministers particularly.

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‘Having mined iron, copper, gold, silver, red ochre, etc., the king should have the various war-weapons and agricultural implements prepared by expert ironsmiths, cutters, and goldsmiths in the villages and cities. The former he should distribute among the soldiers and also keep at the army headquarters for the protection of towns, palaces and fortresses, and the latter he should distribute among the village people.’

Management

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Kashyapa stresses the importance of efficient and good management in agriculture. He states, ‘By continued vigilance over their paddy-fields, by holding cultivation in esteem, and doing it methodically and by the care of their cattle, the cultivators get richer rewards as well as peace of mind. Hence experienced cultivators, having cordial relations among themselves and intent on having two crops every year, should consider it their first duty to protect their cattle, servants, seeds, water-channels, reservoirs, tanks, lakes, etc., spades, sickles, etc., threshing-floors, fences and fields diligently and practising the bountiful art of cultivation according to their local custom, snug in the fulfilment of the three aims of their life, live in great happiness.’

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Apart from rice, Kashyapa mentions other crops. He says, ‘Cultivation of beans and pulses like *masha* (*Vigna radiata*), *chana* (gram), *mudga* (*Vigna mungo*), *kuluttha* (*Dolichos biflorus*), *tila* (sesamum), and of seeds of pepper and *ciraka* should also be done at some places.’

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Marketing

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Recognizing the importance of marketing, Kashyapa says, ‘The king should collect the produce of vegetables, grains, *adhakas*, grams, sesamum, *masha*, mustard, grapes and the various seasonal fruits and stock them for the benefit of the people in shops, market-places, stalls or other places especially built for the purpose on the cross-roads and provided with a spacious yard with or without a shed.’

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‘All the commodities mentioned above and useful necessities such as blankets, cloth, curds, milk and other articles of food, jaggery, oil and other useful products of agriculture, the king should place in the market-places of the villages, towns, cities and particularly of the capital. There he should appoint rich vaishyas who are well-versed in trade for the sale and purchase of these commodities.’

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Rice

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Observations of Kashyapa on the cultivation of rice are remarkable for their accuracy. From the raising of the nursery, he describes the transplanting of seedlings, weeding, irrigation, protection against pests, threshing and storage.

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‘Of the cultivable commodities the varieties of rice occupy the first place, the pulses the second, and the vegetables the third’, says Kashyapa. In the fourth place come *ghee*, milk, curds, etc. These four kinds of products comprise the entire food-stuff. This stuff promotes the happiness of all the gods and is the means of sustenance of man-kind. This gives nourishment, health and long-life and was created by Brahma at the beginning of creation all over the earth.

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‘The sages have said that the cultivation of paddy is best done in countries like Kosala where the fields are irrigated with river-water. Therefore, wise husbandmen who have decided upon reaping a harvest of different kinds of rice like Kalama and Vrihi should first irrigate their fields well by means of channels drawn from reservoirs, rivers or lakes and then till them with the help of oxen.

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Transplanting seedlings. ‘Then the cultivator should order the uprooting of the wisps of paddy seedlings which have already been grown closely in a separate nursery, and then, tying together each wisp, he should, on an auspicious hour, have them transplanted by servants in rows evenly in the paddy field in which the clay has become soft by tilling and has been carefully dressed with the dung of cows or goats or with decayed vegetable matter.

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‘Afterwards only a small quantity of water should be allowed to remain in the field and care be taken to provide an outlet for superfluous water.

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‘In this manner, the paddy seedlings transplanted in rows in a well-ploughed paddy field full of water, in a village, town, forest or woodland, irrigated by a canal and provided with several outlets for draining away the surplus water, are made to take root by the Creator (i.e. Nature) after the lapse of seven or ten days and then the new shoots sprout forth and make their blessed appearance. Then the land shines forth with that fascinating bloom which is found on the plumage of parrots or on the body of a damsel in the prime of her youth.

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‘In this way at the expiry of the first month gradual growth of the paddy blades is discernible.

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‘There is an all-round growth of shoots and increase of splendour on the plants which feed on water daily and hold out a promise of rich harvest.

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*Weeding.* ‘Therefore the cultivators should systematically and assiduously weed out the wild grass and weeds and other injurious rushes like *munja* from their fields. It is best to destroy the wild grasses, rushes, weeds, etc., which affect the growth of grain and reduce the yield of crops, from their very roots. An experienced person should first fill the paddy fields with water and then gradually root out the weeds, etc., row by row. Or it is best to have the pest removed daily by the servants. When the weeds have been eliminated by the cultivators their fields shine forth lustrous and luxuriant.

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‘The cultivation of all the various kinds of rice like the white *Sali*, red *Sali*, *Kalama*, etc., which have been enumerated above is done in the same manner.

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‘When the ears at the top of the rows of plants gradually grow solid and full of milky-juice (or sap) and appear to be somewhat bent, then they should be protected, especially from the parrots. This caution applies equally to all countries.

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*Irrigation.* ‘Then by and by the juicy grains in the ear would become harder at the core and would finally ripen into the rice. Till then regular irrigation of the fields is advisable and beneficial; otherwise there would be the loss of crop.

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‘Therefore, the cultivators should continue to observe the development of sap frequently, and should regularly water their fields at the proper times for the sake of increasing the sap.

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*Protection against pests.* ‘It is extremely beneficial if the crop is protected from rats, locusts, parrots, and other pests.

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‘The ripe paddy, which is so beneficial to the living beings, should be honoured by those who live on it, with circumambulations, and then preserved by them after having determined the period of life of the grain from its appearance, the stamina of its seed and the quality of the soil from which it is produced or from actual experience.

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‘Therefore, the cultivators should be alert to protect their crop at the time of ripening against all sorts of depredations.

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*Harvesting.* ‘When the ears of the paddy have gradually ripened according to their respective duration of time, then water should not be let into the fields. This is the advice of the agricultural experts and should be followed in the case of all paddy-fields.

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‘When the ears at top of the plants become ripe then their stalks bend their head very low to the ground. Seeing them bend so, the husbandman should himself or through his servants protect them in the field for a period of twenty days. Now, when the stalks have become ripe and assumed a golden hue, the cultivators should then reap them with sickles etc. They may have the harvest mown in one day or in several days successively with the help of their dependants and servants working in co-operation.

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‘But reaping would be useful only if care is taken that the stalks are not damaged during the operations nor the harvest spoiled by rain or carried away by thieves.

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*Threshing.* ‘The cultivators should have the reaped plants with their ears stacked on threshing-floors with the help of their servants and attendants. It is advisable to keep the harvest lying on the threshing-floors for three to five days. By threshing the ripe stalks from which the ears become loosened, the grains drop on the threshing-floor and sparkle like heaps of bright pearls. On the second round of threshing done by having the crop trodden over by bullocks and buffaloes, the remaining quantity of the grain also drops on the floor. After having the paddy threshed in this way on the threshing-floor, the cultivators should gather the assorted stuff that is thick and substantial.

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*Selection of seed.* ‘The cultivators should carefully sift the superior grain from the inferior stuff by means of the winnowing-fans, etc., and gather the former into a heap. A wiseman should then dry them in the sun and get them cleaned of impurities. He should then, having apportioned one share to the gods, one to the king, one as a gift to a Brahmana learned in the Vedas, and one for the maintenance of the servants, keep the remaining stock of paddy in his own house.

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*Storage.* ‘He should carefully preserve the grain in suitable receptacles like *kathinya* or in well-baked clay pots or in vessels of strong glass, or in containers woven of ropes and plastered with mud, according to the custom of the locality. At some places, the farmer should dig a pit in the hard earth, provide it with descending steps and store the paddy into it, taking care that it is safe from the hazard of damp, thieves, parrots, rats and other noxious animals.’

Vegetables

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Regarding the cultivation of vegetables, Kashyapa states, ‘In spite of the various species of rice and other provisions like adhaka, etc., want of food is still felt all over the world. Therefore, the farmers should cultivate delicious vegetables like jatika, rasijatika, valhika, vanavalika, patolika, egg-plants, savaka, pumpkin-gourd, kalata, kustumburu, surana sakuta, and turmeric and ginger—both cultivated and wild—as well as various other luscious plants for the sake of cooking. In the writer’s opinion these are the principal vegetables.

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‘The cultivators should grow vine, Indian spikenard, cardamom, etc., in their respective regions of cultivation.

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‘Sometimes parasitic vermin grow on the leaves of the vegetables like the egg-plant, patolika, valte, savaka, cucurbits, kalatas, surana, sakuta, turmeric, ginger, etc. In order to kill the vermin, the cultivators should sprinkle the leaves with ashes, dust or lime-water according to the local usage.

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‘For the sake of obtaining luscious edibles wisemen should undertake the cultivation of patolika, egg-plant, gourds, jambir (citron), lakuca, cardamom, vine, date-palm, etc., according to the local custom and proper season. Of these vegetables, either leaves, flowers, fruit, unripe fruit or bulbous roots are taken for use either at the beginning of efflorescence, or in the middle or end of it, as the case may be.

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‘Some of the fruits are delicious to eat, and others good in sucking their juice. Of the plantain tree in particular all the parts—roots, stem, flower, unripe fruit and ripe fruit—are delicious and agreeable to eat. It is recommended as an excellent food by the sages.

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‘The cultivators should preseve the art of cultivation by practising it in their homes, pleasure groves, land, field-beds, on the banks of ponds and lakes, below the water-reservoirs or near to their sluices.

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‘They should also grow in a proper manner the plantain, arecanut palm, punnaga (Rothleria tinctoria), coconut, mango, bread-fruit, cardamom, vine and malati (jasmine) as well as egg-plants, valte, gourds, etc.’

Garden Crops

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Kashyapa mentions a number of garden plants. He says, ‘A wise man may grow plantain, sugarcane, piper-betel and arecanut in a low land, a garden or a pleasure grove. He may also grow the plantain (Musa paradisiaca [M. sapientum], mocha), bread-fruit (panasa) tree, likucha (Artocarpus lakoocha), the rasala and amra varieties of mango, rose-apple (jamun) and cocoanut trees in the house-orchards, in gardens, or on high or low land.’

Gardens

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‘A wise king should grow a pleasure grove or a garden in a suitable place in the village, city and particularly in the capital’, says Kashyapa. ‘He should have a grove of trees planted outside or inside the town. He should also have a garden planted especially for the diversion of the ladies of his harem. He may have a grove of trees grown on the precincts of a forest.

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‘By growing trees like the sara (sal) and sandal he should provide material for house-building for his subjects.

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‘In his palace garden he should grow various kinds of beautiful and fruits-bearing trees such as the different species of the plantain (rambha, mocha, etc.) and citron (jambira, matulunga, etc.) and the Indian spikenard.

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‘He should also encourage the cultivation of the various species of grass (such as kusa, kasa), basil, the wood-apple and the fragrant and seasonal flowers which may be suitable for worship and household remedies.

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‘For religious festivals he should have a garden planted on the temple land inside or outside the village according to the availability of land or local custom.

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‘In his palace he should have an excellent pleasure grove attached to the gynaeceum bristling with beautiful trees and flowers like the malati. He may also have one such grove planted outside his capital for the diversion of the people.’

Forests

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Kashyapa further enjoins that the king should encourage forestry. He says, ‘their precincts and on the top and slopes of the hills he should grow forests radiant with many kinds of trees. There he should also order the preservation of the seeds of all kinds of trees.

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‘From these trees the people get flowers, fruits and wood for the construction of their houses.

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‘Therefore, the king, taking upon himself the responsibility of protecting his kingdom, should grow on vast tracts of land or with walled enclosures trees and plants like the following: viz. karanjaka (Pongamia glabra); bhurjaka or birch (Betula utilis [B.bhojapatra]), arjuna (Terminalia arjuna), kadamba (Anthocephalus chinensis [A.cadamba]), sigru (Moringa oleifera [M. pterygosperma]), ornamental flowering trees; tinduka (Diospyros peregrina [D. embryopteris]), vata—the banyan; Plaksa (Ficus lacor [F. infectoria]), vibhitaka (Terminalia bellerica), Amalaka (Emblica officinalis) [Phyllanthus emblica], karnikara (Pterospermum acerifolium), likuca (Artocarpus lakoocha), nimba (Azadirachta indica), margosa; ashoka (Saraca asoca) [Jonesia asoka], sirisa (Albizia lebbeck), gampeyaka (Michelia champaca), vamsa-bamboo; kuta; rasola, amra (varieties of mango); madhuka (Madhuca indica) [Bassia latifolia], punnaga (Calophyllum inophyllum), kovidara (Bauhinia purpurea), paribhadra (Erythrina variegata var. orientalis) [E. indica].

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‘In this manner, he should have great forests, radiant with groves of trees, planted by the cultivators and other people on river-banks and in various countries like Gandhara, Kunti, Panchala, Kashmira, Avanti, Sindhu, Nepala, Nishadha, Kosala, Anga, Dhurjara (Gurjara) and Saurashtra, on fertile land provided all round with tanks, canals or ponds, etc. He should have them well guarded by brave soldiers and fighters for the benefit of the people.’

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The forests yielded a large variety of edible fruits—mango, pomegranate, jack, banana, date, vilva, kapittha, rose-apple, jujube, mascot, coconut—these being the commonest and best. Vines, dates and palms were specially grown in the Punjab and the North-West Frontier. Panini speaks of *Kapisa* as the premier vine-growing district of India.

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Bose, D.M. (C. Ed.), *A Concise History of Science in India*, New Delhi, 1971 Habib, I. *Jatts of Punjab and Sind*, in *Essays in Honour of Dr Ganda Singh*, Patiala, 1976 Majumdar, R.C. (Gen. Ed.). *The History and Culture of the Indian People, The Age of Imperial Kanuaj*, Vol. IV, Bombay, 1955 Paul, P.L. *The History of Bengal*, Vol. I, Calcutta, 1936 Raychaudhuri, S.P. *Agriculture in Ancient India*, New Delhi, 1964 Sachau, E.C. *Alberuni's India*, London, 1910

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