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A History of Agriculture in India v2.c54: Chapter 2. The Arab Conquest of Sind

A History of Agriculture in India v2.c54

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English

Contents

Chapter 2. The Arab Conquest of Sind

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IBN HAUKAL'S OBSERVATIONS ON THE COUNTRY, PEOPLE AND CROPS OF SIND AL IDRISI'S ACCOUNT OF GUJARAT AND KERALA LAND REVENUE, CESSES AND TAXES IN SIND Eighth Century A.D. to Eleventh Century A.D.

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SIND was a part of India nearest to the Arab home-land. Apart from climatic and geographical conditions, the social conditions were also ideal for the Arab invaders. The lower classes were chafing under the tyranny of the upper-class Brahmans and Rajputs. The cultivators of Sind and the Punjab, who were never too orthodox, welcomed the Islamic invaders as liberators from caste tyranny. In A.D. 711-712 Muhammad-bin-Qasim conquered Sind and parts of Punjab. Debal the seaport fell to the Arabs in A.D. 711. Dahir, the Hindu king of Sind, was killed in a battle with the Arabs in A.D. 712, and they occupied his capital Brahmanabad. Mohd-bin-Qasim conquered Sind with the active assistance of Jats and other agricultural communities. The exploited castes of North India embraced Islam in large numbers to escape from the tyranny of the caste-system, and to enjoy the privileges which the religion of the conquerors conferred on them.

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Military colonies were established by the Arabs at Mansura, Kusdar, and Multan, and large areas of fertile land were given to the Arab soldiers as military tenure. Sind remained an Arab province until A.D. 871, when, as the authority of Abbasids of Baghdad declined, two Arab chiefs established independent principalities, one in Upper Sind with its capital at Multan, and the other in Lower Sind.

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What was the condition of Sind in the tenth century? Ibn Haukal, an Arab geographer, a native of Baghdad, left Baghdad in A.D. 943 and, after passing through various lands under Muslim rule, returned to that city in A.D. 968. He has left a graphic description of Sind, its cities, villages, people and crops in his *Kitā’bu-l Masā’lik Wā-l Mamā’lik*, which is reproduced below.

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‘The city of Debal is to the west of the Mihran, towards the sea. It is a large mart, and the port not only of this but neighbouring regions. Debal is remarkable for the richness of its grain cultivation, but it is not over-abundant in large trees or the date tree. It is famous for the manufacture of swords. The inhabitants generally maintain themselves by their commerce.

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‘The city of Famhal is on the borders of Hind, towards Saimur, and the country between those two places belongs to Hind. The countries between Famhal and Makran, and Budha, and beyond it as far as the borders of Multan, are all dependencies of Sind. The infidels who inhabit Sind are called Budha and Mand. They reside in the tract between Turan, Multan, and Mansura, to the west of the Mihran. They breed camels, which are sought after in Khurasan and elsewhere, for the purpose of having crosses from those of Bactria.

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'The city where the Budhites carry on their trade is Kandabil, and they resemble men of the desert. They live in houses made of reeds and grass. The Mands dwell on the banks of the Mihran, from the boundary of Multan to the sea, and in the desert between Makran and Famhal. They have many cattle sheds and pasturages, and form a large population.

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'There are Jam'a Masjids at Famhal, Sindan, Saimur, and Kambaya, all which are strong and great cities, and the Muhammadan precepts are openly observed. They produce mangoes, cocoa-nuts, lemons and rice in great abundance, also great quantities of honey, but there are no date trees to be found in them.

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'The villages of Dahuk and Kalwan are contiguous to each other, situated between Labi and Armabil. Kalwan is a dependency of Makran, and Dahuk that of Mansura. In these last-mentioned places fruit is scarce, but crops grow without irrigation, and cattle are abundant.

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'Kasdar is a city with dependent towns and villages. The governor is Muin bin Ahmad, but the Khutba is read in the name of the Khalifa only, and the place of his residence is at the city of Kaba-Kanan. This is a cheap place, where pomegranates, grapes, and other pleasant fruits are met with in abundance.

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'There is a desert between Bania, Kamuhul, and Kambaya. From Kambaya to Saimur the villages lie close to one another, and there is much land under cultivation. The Moslims and infidels in this tract wear the same dresses, and let their beards grow in the same fashion. They use fine muslin garments on account of the extreme heat. The men of Multan dress in the same way. The language of Mansura, Multan, and those parts is Arabic and Sindian. In Makran they use Persian and Makranic. All wear short tunics except the merchants, who wear shirts and cloaks of cotton, like the men of Trak and Persia.

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'Makran contains chiefly pasturages and fields, which cannot be irrigated on account of the deficiency of water. Between Mansura and Makran the waters from the Mihran form lakes, and the inhabitants of the country are the Indian races called Zat. Those who are near the river dwell in houses formed of reeds, like the Berbers, and eat fish and aquatic birds.... Another clan of them, who live remote from the banks, are like the Kurds, and feed on milk, cheese, and bread made of millet.'¹

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¹ Elliot and Dowson, *The History of India....*, Vol. I, pp. 37-40

India in the Eleventh Century

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Al Idrisi was born at Ceuta, in Morocco, towards the end of the eleventh century. He travelled in Europe and eventually settled in Sicily. He gives the following description of the Indians and their country.

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'The Indians are divided into seven castes. The first is that of the Sakriya. These are the most noble; from among them kings are chosen, and from no others. All the other castes pay homage to them, but they render homage to no one. Next come the Brahmans, who are the religious class. They dress in the skins of tigers and other animals. Sometimes one of them, taking a staff in his hand, will assemble a crowd around him, and will stand from morn till eve speaking to his auditors of the glory and power of God, and explaining to them the events which brought destruction upon the ancient people, that is, upon the Brahmans. They never drink wine nor fermented liquors. They worship idols (whom they consider to be) able to intercede with the Most High. The third caste is that of the Kastariya, who may drink as much as three ratls of wine, but not more, lest they should lose their reason. This caste may marry Brahman women, but Brahmans cannot take their women to wife. Next comes the Sharduya, who are labourers and agriculturists, then the Basya, who are artisans and mechanics; then the Sabdaliya (or Sandaliya), who are singers, and whose women are noted for their beauty; and, lastly, the Zakya, who are jugglers, tumblers, and players of various instruments.'

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Commenting on the character of Indians, Idrisi states, 'The Indians are naturally inclind to justice, and never depart from it in their actions. Their good faith, honesty and fidelity to their engagements are well known, and they are so famous for these qualities that people flock to their country from every side; hence the country is flourishing and their condition prosperous.' Among other characteristic marks of their love of truth and horror of vice, the following is related: 'When a man has a right to demand anything of another, and he happens to meet him, he has only to draw a circular line upon the ground and to make his debtor enter it, which the latter never fails to do, and the debtor cannot leave this circle without satisfying his creditor, or obtaining the remission of the debt.'

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Commenting on the country, its climate and crops, Idrisi wrote, 'The climate is hot. The country produces dates and sugarcanes in abundance. There are hardly any other fruits, if we except one, a sort of fruit called laimun, as big as an apple and of a very sour taste, and another which resembles the peach both in shape and taste. Mansura in Sind, that of which we are now speaking, is great, populous, rich, and commercial. Its environs are fertile. The buildings are constructed of bricks, tiles, and plaster. It is a place of recreation and of pleasure. Trade flourishes. The bazars are filled with people, and well stocked with goods. The lower classes wear the Persian costume, but the princes wear tunics, and allow their hair to grow long like the princes of India. The money is silver and copper. The weight of the drachma (dinar) is five times that of the (ordinary) drachma. The Tatariya coins also are current here. Fish is plentiful, meat is cheap, and foreign and native fruits abound.

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'East of Sindan there is an island bearing the same name and dependent on India. It is large and well cultivated, and the cocoa-nut palm, kana, and rattan grow there.

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'Saimur, five days from Sindan, is a large well-built town. Cocoa-nut trees grow here in abundance; henna also grows here, and the mountains produce many aromatic plants, which are exported.

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'Five miles by sea (from Kulam Mali) lies the island of Mali, which is large and pretty. It is an elevated plateau, but not very hilly, and is covered with vegetation. The pepper vine grows in this island, as in Kandarina and Jirbatan, but it is found nowhere else but in these three places. It is a shrub, having a trunk like that of the vine; the leaf is like the convolvulus, but longer; it bears grapes like those of the Shabuka, each bunch of which is sheltered by a leaf which curls over when the fruit is ripe. White pepper is what is gathered as it begins to ripen, or even before. Ibn Khurdadba states that the leaves curl over the bunches to protect them from the rain, and that they return to their natural position when the rain is over—a surprising fact!

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'Kambaya, Subara, Sindan and Saimur form part of India. The last named belongs to a country whose king is called Balhara.

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'Baruh (Baruch, Broach) is a large handsome town, well-built of bricks and plaster. The inhabitants are rich and engaged in trade, and they freely enter upon speculations and distant expeditions. It is a port for the vessels coming from China, as it is also for those of Sind. In all Nahrwara and its environs there is no other mode of travelling except in chariots drawn by oxen under the control of a driver. These carriages are fitted with harness and traces, and are used for the carriage of goods.

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'The inhabitants of Nahrwara live upon rice, peas, beans, haricots, lentils, mash, fish, and animals that have died a natural death, for they never kill winged or other animals. They have a great veneration for oxen, and by a privilege confined to the species, they inter them after death. When these animals are enfeebled by age, and are unable to work, they free them from all labour and provide them with food without exacting any return.

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'Opposite the sea-port town of Baruh lies the island of Mullan, which produces pepper in large quantities, and is two days' journey from Sindan. From Sindan to Balbak is also two days. Balbak produces cocoa-nuts, figs, bananas and rice. It is here that vessels change their courses for the different islands of India.

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'Fandarina is a town built at the mouth of a river which comes from Manibar (Malabar), where vessels from India and Sind cast anchor. The inhabitants are rich, the markets well supplied, and trade flourishing. North of this town there is a very high mountain covered with trees, villages and flocks. The cardamom grows here and forms the staple of a considerable trade. It grows like the grains of hemp, and the grains are enclosed in pods. From Fandarina to Jirbatan, a populous town on a little river, is five days. It is fertile in rice and grain and supplies provisions to the markets of Sarandib. Pepper grows in the neighbouring mountains. From Jirbatan to Sanji and Kaikasar two days. These are maritime towns near to each other; the neighbourhood produces rice and corn. From hence to Kilkayan one day. From Kilkayan to Lulu and to Kanja one day. The vicinity is fertile in rice and wheat, and produces sapan wood abundantly. The growth of this tree resembles that of the oleander. Cocoa-nut trees abound.'

Land Revenue Cesses and Taxes

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'The ordinary revenue which the Arab rulers were entitled to collect from the provinces committed to them was derived from the land-tax, and from the capitation-tax upon those who had not embraced the Muhammadan religion; but there were many miscellaneous cesses besides, which, in the aggregate, yielded large returns.

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'The land-tax was usually rated at two-fifths of the produce of wheat and barley, if the fields were watered by public canals; three-tenths, if irrigated by wheels or other artificial means; and one-fourth, if altogether unirrigated. If arable land was left uncultivated, it seems to have paid one dirham per jarib, and one-tenth of the probable produce. Of dates, grapes and garden produce, one-third was taken, either in kind or money; and one-fifth (khums) of the yield of wines, fishing, pearls, and generally of any product not derived from cultivation, was to be delivered in kind, or paid in value, even before the expenses had been defrayed.

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'These taxes were according to the original institutes of 'Umar, when he assessed the Sawad, or cultivated lands of 'Irak; but, in course of time, they were everywhere greatly enhanced, even to one-half of the produce of the land, or rather according to the ability of the people to pay. In short, the rates above mentioned were merely a nominal value put upon the land; for the collection of the revenues was, in many instances, left to rapacious farmers, who covered their contracts and benefited themselves besides, at the expense of the cultivators.

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'Besides this ordinary land-tax, we read, in the Chach-nama, of other burdens laid upon Sindian cultivators, which seem to have been independent of the former: such as the baj, and the 'ushari. Other extraordinary conditions were occasionally imposed on some of the tribes. The Jats dwelling beyond the river Aral were compelled to bring a dog on each occasion of paying their respects, besides being branded upon the hand.

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'Sumptuary laws, moreover, were established, and enforced with great stringency. Certain tribes were prohibited from wearing fine linen, from riding on horses, and from covering their heads and feet. If they committed theft, their women and children were burnt to death. Others had to protect caravans, and to furnish guides to Muhammadans.

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'The natives were also enjoined, in conformity with an old law of 'Umar's, to feed every Muhammadan traveller for three days and nights.'

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In early stages it was a social oppression which prompted some Hindus to embrace Islam. Later on the motive was purely economic. 'All the unconverted tribes were, without exception, liable to the capitation-tax (jizya), which, as it was a religious as well as a political duty to collect, was always exacted with rigour and punctuality, and frequently with insult,' state Dowson and Elliot.

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'According to the original ordinance of 'Umar, those persons who were of any persuasion non-Muhammadan were called Zimmis, or those under protection, and were assessed with a toleration, or poll-tax, at the following rates. A person in easy circumstances had to pay 48 dirhams a year, one of moderate means 24 dirhams, and one in an inferior station, or who derived his subsistence from manual labour, 12 dirhams. Women, children and persons unable to work paid nothing. But a century had not elapsed when 'Umar the Second, considering these rates too moderate, calculated what a man could gain during the year, and what he could subsist on, and claimed all the rest, amounting to four or five dinars, about two pounds, a year.

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'As the tax ceased upon any one's becoming a Moslem—when he was enfranchised from his dependence, and was invested with the privileges of a citizen and companion—its severe enforcement was often found more efficacious than argument or persuasion in inducing the victims to offer themselves as converts to the faith.'² This explains large-scale conversions of Hindus to Islam in Sind and Western Punjab.

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² Elliot and Dowson. *The History of India*..., Vol. I, pp. 87, 90, 474-478

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