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A History of Agriculture in India v2.c62: Chapter 10. Firoz Shah Tughlak

A History of Agriculture in India v2.c62

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English

Contents

Chapter 10. Firoz Shah Tughlak

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A.D. 1351-1388 PROSELYTISM TO ISLAM, REVERSION TO JAGIR SYSTEM, FOUNDING OF HISSAR, DIGGING OF WESTERN JAMUNA CANAL LAYING OUT OF GARDENS, PROSPERITY OF PEOPLE

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The death of Muhammad-bin-Tughlak on the banks of the Indus left the army without a leader. After prolonged consultations they selected Firoz Shah, son of Sipahsalar Rajab, brother of Ghias-ud-din Tughlak. Rajab had married a Rajput princess of Abohar, and hence Firoz Shah was half-Indian. Though he lacked the qualities of a military leader, he was a great builder and a promoter of agriculture. He was fond of study of history and patronized learned men. He is credited with the invention of a clock or bell (tas-i-ghariyal), which was placed on the top of the durbar of the Kushk in Firozabad. It attracted large crowds of idlers. The main interests of the Sultan were building, hunting and administration.

Shikar

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Sultan Firoz spent much time in hunting. The shikar department was organized under an Amir-i-shikar. Under him were minor officers for the care and keeping of royal falcons and leopards. Under them were Shikardars who carried the animals and birds on the day of the chase. Following an old Persian tradition he built a great walled enclosure as royal preserve for wild animals on a piece of land extending to about 24 miles (38.6 km) near Delhi. Deer, nilgai and jungle fowl were the popular game. Rhinoceros and wolves were found in the hills of the Punjab. It was the privilege of the monarch to hunt lions.

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Shams-i-Siraj states that when Firoz Tughlak used to go out for the chase, a big procession was formed. Forty to fifty special standards and two specially designed emblems, adorned with peacock feathers, were carried in front of the Sultan on both sides. Behind them were trained wild animals, e.g. cheetahs and lynxes, followed by hounds. Then followed the keepers of eagles and falcons on horse-back.

Conversion of Hindus

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The Sultan encouraged proselytization to Islam. In his Fatuhat he states, ‘I encouraged my infidel subjects to embrace the religion of the prophet, and I proclaimed that every one who repeated the creed and became a Musulman should be exempt from the jizya, or poll-tax. Information of this came to the ears of the people at large, and great numbers of Hindus presented themselves, and were admitted to the honour of Islam. Thus they came forward day by day from every quarter, and, adopting the faith, were exonerated from the *jizya*, and were favoured with presents and honours.' This explains the origin of a large part of the existing Muslim population of India. *Jizya* was imposed even on Brahmanas, who were so far exempt from this type of taxation.

Slave-Raiding

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A method of proselytization to Islam adopted by the Turks was slavery. The Ottoman Turks adopted the systems of raising troops, the Janissarries, from the Christian boys of the conquered European territories like Bulgaria and Thrace. They were delivered up each year by their parents as a form of tribute. There was a tax on every Christian family of one boy in five. They were put into Muslim schools, separated from all home or family ties, brought up in the faith of Islam, and forbidden to marry. Imbued thus with an undivided allegiance to the Ottoman Sultan and religion of Islam, upon which all their aspirations hung, when their training was completed they entered the infantry or civil service.

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In India the Turks adopted the system of slave-raiding. The slaves (or *bandagan*, as they were called) were all converted to Islam. Shams-i-Siraj describes in great detail, how the slaves were obtained. 'The Sultan was very diligent in providing slaves, and he carried his care so far as to command his great fief-holders and officers to capture slaves whenever they were at war, and to pick out and send the best for the service of the court. When the feudatories went to court, each one according to his ability took with him beautiful slaves, dressed and ornamented in the most splendid style. They also, when they paid their annual visit, brought other presents suited to their means and station—high-priced horses of the best breeds, fine elephants, valuable garments of every kind, vessels of gold and silver, arms, camels and mules—each man according to the extent of his fief, some as many as a hundred, some fifty, some twenty, and some eleven. They also brought slaves.

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'Those chiefs who brought many slaves received the highest favour, and those who brought few received proportionately little consideration. When the chiefs perceived the Sultan’s eagerness for slaves, and that their efforts to get them were highly appreciated, they exerted themselves in providing them, and the numbers brought every year exceed description. Great numbers of slaves were thus collected, and when they were found to be in excess, the Sultan sent them to Multan, Dipalpur, Hisar-Firozah, Samana, Gujarat, and all the other feudal dependencies.

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'Some of the slaves spent their time in reading and committing to memory the holy book, others in religious studies, others in copying books. Some, with the Sultan's leave, went to the temple at Mecca. Some were placed under tradesmen and were taught mechanical arts, so that about 12,000 slaves became artisans (kasib) of various kinds. Forty thousand were every day in readiness to attend as guards in the Sultan's equipage or at the palace. Altogether, in the city and in the various fiefs there were 180,000 slaves, for whose maintenance and comfort the Sultan took especial care. The institution took root in the very centre of the land, and the Sultan looked upon its due regulation as one of his incumbent duties. To such an extent were matters carried that there was a distinct muster-master (majmu-dar) of the slaves, a separate treasury for the payment of their allowances, a separate jao-shughuri, and deputy jao-shughuri, and a distinct diwan, that is to say, the officers for administering the affairs of the slaves (ashab-i' diwan-i bandagan), were entirely distinct from those under the Prime Minister (ashab-i diwan-i' ala-e wizarat).

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'When the Sultan went out in State the slaves accompanied him in distinct corps—first the archers, fully armed, next the swordmen, thousands in number (hazār hazār), the fighting men (bandagan-i award), the bandagan-i mahili riding on male buffaloes, and slaves from the Hazara, mounted on Arab and Turki horses, bearing standards and axes. These all, thousands upon thousands, accompanied the royal retinue. The slaves increased to such a degree that they were employed in all sorts of domestic duties, as water coolers, butlers (etc., etc.). In fact there was no occupation in which the slaves of Firoz Shah were not employed.'¹

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¹ Shams-i-Siraj 'Afif. Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi, in Elliot and Dowson, The History of India..., Vol. III, pp. 340, 341 and 342

Transportation of Asoka Pillars to Delhi

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The reign of Sultan Firoz is memorable for the installation of two Asoka pillars in Delhi. Neither the Sultan nor his subjects knew who was Asoka, nor what was inscribed on the pillars. They were thought to be the works of demons, and it was out of sheer curiosity that the Sultan transported them to Delhi. How were they discovered, and how they were brought to Delhi is thus described by Shams-i Siraj. 'After Sultan Firoz returned from his expedition against Thatta, he often made excursions in the neighbourhood of Delhi. In this part of the country there were two stone columns. One was in the village of Tobra, in the district (shikk) of Salaura and Khizra-bad, in the hills (koh-payah); the other in the vicinity of the town of Mirat. These columns had stood in those places from the days of the Pandavas, but had never attracted the attention of any of the kings who sat upon the throne of Delhi, till Sultan Firoz noticed them, and with great exertion, brought them away. One was erected in the palace (*kushk*) at Firozabad, near the *Masjid-i-jama’*, and was called the *Minara-i zarin*, or Golden Column, and the other was erected in the *Kushk-i Shikar*, or Hunting Palace, with great labour and skill. The author has read in the works of good historians that these columns of stone had been the walking sticks of the accursed Bhim, a man of great stature and size.’

Removal of the Minara-i Zarin

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Khizrabad is ninety *kos* from Delhi, in the vicinity of the hills. When the Sultan visited that district, and saw the column in the village of Tobra, he resolved to remove it to Delhi and there erect it as a memorial to future generations. After thinking over the best means of lowering the column, orders were issued commanding the attendance of all the people dwelling in the neighbourhood, within and without the doab, and all soldiers, both on horse and foot. They were ordered to bring all implements and materials suitable for the work. Directions were issued for bringing parcels of the cotton of the *sembal* (silk-cotton tree). Quantities of this silk cotton were placed round the columns, and when the earth at its base was removed, it fell gently over on the bed prepared for it. The cotton was then removed by degrees, and after some days the pillar lay safe upon the ground. When the foundations of the pillar were examined, a large square stone was found as a base, which also was taken out. The pillar was then encased from top to bottom in reeds and raw skins, so that no damage might accrue to it. A carriage with forty-two wheels was constructed, and ropes were attached to each wheel. Thousands of men hauled at every rope, and after great labour and difficulty the pillar was raised on to the carriage. A strong rope was fastened to each wheel, and 200 men pulled at each of these ropes. By the simultaneous exertions of so many thousand men the carriage was moved, and was brought to the banks of the Jumna. Here the Sultan came to meet it. A number of large boats had been collected, some of which could carry 5,000 and 7,000 *mans* of grain, and the least of them 2,000 *mans*. The column was very ingeniously transferred to these boats, and was then conducted to Firozabad, where it was landed and conveyed into the *Kushk* with infinite labour and skill.’²

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² Shams-i Shiraj ‘Afif. *Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi*, in Elliot and Dowson, *The History of India*.., Vol. III, pp. 350, 351

Revenue Administration—Jagir System

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The Sultan restored to the original owners village lands confiscated by his predecessors. He also made fresh grants every day to the host of candidates present in the capital. Shams-i Siraj states, ‘The Sultan showed great liberality in his grants of revenue, and excited the cupidity of a host of expectants. To some he gave 10,000 tankas, to others 5,000, and to others 2,000, according to the respective ranks and claims of the different office-bearers. This method of paying officials was introduced by Sultan Firoz, and remains as a memorial of him. During the forty years of his reign he devoted himself to generosity and the benefit of Musulmans, by distributing villages and lands among his followers.'

Hindu Chiefs Under Firoz

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Under Firoz we hear very little of the Hindu Chiefs, the Rais and Ranas, the other important class of intermediaries. The general averments of continued tranquility, taken with the absence of records of punitive expeditions, suggest that their relations with the Administration were normally friendly. There is record in regard to two chiefs belonging to the province of Avadh. 'When the King was marching through this province on an expedition to Bengal, the Chiefs (Rai) of Gorakhpur and Kharosa, who had formerly paid their revenue in Avadh, but for some years had been in "rebellion" and had withheld payments, came to make their submission and offered valuable presents. At the same time they paid into the Camp treasury "several lakhs" of tankas on account of the arrears of former years, and agreed to the sums to be paid in future, for which they gave formal engagements. They accompanied the King for some marches through their country; and, in recognition of their submission, orders were issued that not a single village of theirs was to be plundered, and that any animals which had been seized were to be restored.'

A Great Builder

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Firoz was a great builder. He built cities, mosques, hospitals, public baths, bridges, dams, and irrigation reservoirs. He also restored the decaying buildings of his predecessors. He founded the cities of Jaunpur (to the north-west of Benares), and Hissar. Shams-i Siraj states, 'It was at this time that Hisar Firozah was founded.... In the place now occupied by the city two large and populous villages formerly stood, which were called Great Laras and Little Laras. There were fifty kharaks included in Great Laras, and forty in Little Laras. In this country there is no other village than the kharak. 'The neighbourhood of Great Laras greatly pleased Sultan Firoz, and he thought it would be well to build a city there, for it was very deficient in water, and during the hot season travellers who came from Irak and Khurasan had to pay as much as four jitals for a pitcher full. So the Sultan resolved to build a city, being filled with hope that if he built a town for the benefit of Musulmans, God would provide it with water. He, therefore, began the work, and persevered in it for several years, assisted by his nobles and great men. Hard stone was brought from the hills of Narsai, and was used with strong quicklime and burnt bricks. A fort of great extent and height was commenced.³

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³ Shams-i-Shiraj 'Afif. *Tarikh-i Firoz Shahi*, in Elliot and Dowson, *The History of India...*, Vol. III, pp. 298, 299

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FIG. 5. The Western Jamuna Canal was constructed by Firoz Tughlak. It was aligned along the neglected beds of rivers.

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When a city is built, the question of water-supply arises. In Hissar, which was founded in a desert, the problem was all the more acute. It was solved by the construction of an inundation canal, the famous Western Jamuna Canal, which brought ‘dead lands’ to life.

Western Jamuna Canal

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In harnessing the flood waters of the Jamuna and the Sutlej, by construction of the western Jamuna canal, Firoz Shah was a pioneer in the history of canal irrigation. This canal was constructed in A.D. 1355 to privide water to the newly constructed city of Hisar Firoza (Hissar) and his hunting grounds at Safidon. In aligning it, advantage was taken of natural depressions or drainage channels whose slope and direction were found suitable. The channel thus took the form of a linked series of drainages and depressions rather than a canal as the word is understood today.

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Shams-i Siraj thus provides the details about the construction of this canal, and its upkeep. "The Sultan, perceiving that there was a great scarcity of water, resolved in his munificence to bring a supply thither. He accordingly conducted two streams (jui) into the city from two rivers; one from the river Jamuna, the other from the Sutlej. That from the Jamuna was called Rajiwah, and (the other) Alaghkhani. Both these streams were conducted through the vicinity of Karnal, and, after a length of about eighty kos, discharged their waters by one channel into the town. The author's father was then in the service of the Court, and held the office of Shab-navis. He informed the author that Sultan Feroz was occupied two years and a half in building the town. When it was built he laid out many gardens and planted many trees, including all sorts of fruit-trees.... Previous to this time there had been an autumn harvest, but the spring harvest failed, because wheat would not grow without water. After the canals had been dug, both harvests came to maturity.

Irrigation Charges

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Firoz Shah thus established two cities by land and by water—the city of Fath-abad, and the city of Hisar Firozah. Numerous water-courses were brought into these places, and an extent of from eighty to ninety kos in these districts was brought (under cultivation), in which there were many towns and villages, as the kasbas of Janid and Dahatarath, and the town of Hansi and its dependecies. In every town and village great advantage was derived from the supply of water. The king therefore convened a general assembly of judges, lawyers, and doctors, and demanded of them an opinion upon this question: "If a man with great labour and expenditure of money conducts water into certain districts, so that the inhabitants thereof realize a large profit, ought he or not to receive any return for his trouble and outlay?" They were unanimously of opinion that the benefactor was entitled to the right of sharb, that is to say, ten per cent. The Sultan accordingly realized his sharb, and included it in his rent-roll.

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'The king's rental was thus increased from two sources, from the sharb, and secondly from the newly cultivated lands. A sum of about two lacs of tankas was in this way added to the king's revenue. No king of Dehli had ever been in the receipt of such an income as Sultan Firoz now enjoyed, and the sovereign's financial business had so greatly increased that separate officers were appointed for the control of the private income of the Sultan, and the public revenue of the State was kept distinct.

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'When the rainy season came on, and the rains were at their height, officers were appointed to examine the banks of all the water-courses, and report how far the inundations extended. The author's father was several times appointed on this duty. The Sultan was greatly pleased when he heard of the spread of the waters. If any village in his estate went to ruin, he dismissed the officers in disgrace, and so during his reign the country was thriving and prosperous.’

Cheapness of Foodgrains

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The reign of Firoz Shah was marked by cheapness of foodgrains. Possibly it was due to good rainfall over a number of years, and irrigation of land by the Western Jumuna canal. Shams-i Siraj states, ‘Grain was so cheap that, in the city of Dehli, wheat was eight *jitals* a *man*, and gram and barley four *jitals* a *man*. Fabrics of all kinds were cheap, and silk goods, both white and coloured, were of moderate price. Orders were given for the reduction of the price of sweet-meats, in unison with the general fall of prices.’

Gardens

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Firoz not only promoted agriculture by extending irrigation to barren lands, he also planted fruit-trees in gardens. Shams-i Siraj states, ‘Sultan Firoz had a great liking for the laying out of gardens, which he took great pains to embellish. He formed 1,200 gardens in the vicinity of Dehli. Such of them as were private poperty, or were religious endowments, after due investigation of the titles, he settled for with their owners. All gardens received abundant proofs of his care, and he restored thirty gardens which had been commenced by Ala-ud-din. In the neighbourhood of Salaura he made eighty gardens, and in Chitur forty-four gardens. In every garden there were white and black grapes, of seven (*named*) varieties. They were sold at the rate of one *jital* per *sir*. Of the various articles grown in the gardens, the government share of the produce amounted to 80,000 *tankas*, without taking into account the dues of the owners and gardeners.’⁵

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⁵ Shams-i Siraj ‘Afif. *Tarikh-i Firoz Shahi*, in Elliot and Dowson, *The History of India* ..., Vol. III, pp. 300-302, 345, 346

Condition of People

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There is little doubt that under the beneficent rule of Sultan Firoz the condition of the people improved. ‘Formerly’, according to Shams-i Siraj, ‘the practice was to leave the *raiyat* one cow and take away all the rest. Sultan Firoz made the laws of the Prophet his guide, acting zealously upon the principles they laid down, and prohibiting all that was inconsistent therewith. No demand in excess of the regular government dues was to be made, and the officer who made any such exaction was to make full reparation. Brocades, silks, and goods required for the royal establishments were to be purchased at the market price, and the money paid.... Such rules were made that the raiyats grew rich, and were satisfied.... Their homes were replete with grain, property, horses, and furniture; every one had plenty of gold and silver; no woman was without her ornaments, and no house was wanting in excellent beds and couches. Wealth abounded and comforts were general. The whole realm of Dehli was blessed with the bounties of the Almighty.’ There is an element of exaggeration and courtly flattery in this statement, but there is no doubt that under the comparatively mild rule of Firoz, the peasants were relatively prosperous.

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Sultan Firoz Shah died in September 1388, aged about eighty-three. After his death the government fell into utter confusion. As the central authority weakened, the governors of provinces became independent.

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