A History of Agriculture in India v2.c65: Chapter 13. The Hindu Empire of Vijayanagar

A History of Agriculture in India v2.c65

Language: English

v2.c65.s1 Harihara I (A.D. 1336-1355) — 1 part
v2.c65.s2 Bukka I (A.D. 1355-1377) — 1 part
v2.c65.s3 Irrigation, Construction of Anantaraja Sagar or Porumamilla Tank, Cuddapah District — 4 parts
v2.c65.s4 Devaraya I (A.D. 1406-1422) — 4 parts
v2.c65.s5 Devaraya II (A.D. 1425-1446) — 1 part
v2.c65.s6 Use of Palm-Leaves for Writing — 5 parts
v2.c65.s7 Love for Flowers — 1 part
v2.c65.s8 The Country — 1 part
v2.c65.s9 Courtesans — 1 part
v2.c65.s10 Pan (Betel-Leaf) and Its Stimulating Effect — 3 parts
v2.c65.s11 King’s White Elephant and Method of Catching Elephants — 5 parts
v2.c65.s12 Krishnadevaraya (A.D. 1509-1529)—Administrator, Statesman, Builder and Scholar — 7 parts
v2.c65.s13 Patronage to Literature, Art and Temple Building — 4 parts
v2.c65.s14 The City of Vijayanagar — 3 parts
v2.c65.s15 The Country-Side — 2 parts
v2.c65.s16 Land Revenue Assessment — 3 parts
v2.c65.s17 Construction of Vijayanagar Dam — 4 parts
v2.c65.s18 Crops, Fruits and Vegetables — 4 parts
v2.c65.s19 Observations of Fernao Nuniz — 4 parts
v2.c65.s20 Domestic Animals — 4 parts
v2.c65.s21 Hallikar Cattle — 4 parts
v2.c65.s22 Animals Depicted in Sculpture Reliefs — 1 part
v2.c65.s23 Birds — 1 part
v2.c65.s24 Poultry — 2 parts
v2.c65.s25 Ruin of Vijayanagar — 15 parts

Chapter 13. The Hindu Empire of Vijayanagar

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IRRIGATION WORKS, CROPS AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS

WITH the weakening of the Tughlak empire and loosening of its control over distant provinces, two kingdoms arose in the south, viz. the Hindu empire of Vijayanagar with River Krishna as its northern boundary, and the Muslim Bahmani kingdom to its north flanked by Gondwana and Telingana.

Harihara I (A.D. 1336-1355)

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Harihara I, the founder of Vijayanagar kingdom, was crowned in A.D. 1336. On the same day he laid the foundation of Vijayanagar on the southern bank of the Tungabhadra. His reign marks the beginning of an era of conquest and territorial expansion. The small kingdom which at the beginning comprised a few Telugu and Kannada districts had grown considerably in size and was fast developing into an empire during the last years of his reign. The ports of Goa, Chaul and Dabul were taken from the Muslims. Harihara successfully resisted the attacks of Ala-ud-din Bahman Shah, the first Bahmani Sultan. He organized the kingdom into new subdivisions of villages and sthala, each under a karnam. He promoted agriculture by giving rewards to those who reclaimed land by clearing jungles.

Bukka I (A.D. 1355-1377)

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Bukka I succeeded Harihara I in A.D. 1355 and ruled till A.D. 1377. He took an active interest in the revival of the Hindu dharma. He also encouraged Telugu literature and was a patron of Nachana Soma, the greatest Telugu poet of the age. He was repeatedly attacked by the Bahmani Sultan Muhammad I. The Hindu bankers and money-changers started the practice of selling to the mints of Vijayanagar gold coins of Muhammad, which were finer than those of the Hindu mints. As a result of this practice, following Gresham's law, the gold coins of the Sultan disappeared, and the Hindu coins became the gold currency of the entire south. To safeguard the economy of his kingdom Muhammad murdered such of the Hindu bankers and money-changers who were residing in his kingdom. This was followed by a war against Vijayanagar in which the Hindus suffered heavy casualties and over four lacs were killed by the Sultan's armies.

Irrigation, Construction of Anantaraja Sagar or Porumamilla Tank, Cuddapah District

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This tank was built about A.D. 1367, during the reign of Bukka I. An inscription dated A.D. 1369 on two stone slabs in a temple nearby states that the work of construction of the reservoir took two years, that one thousand labourers were employed, and a hundred carts were engaged in carrying stones to the site. This tank is situated about 3.2 km to the east of the village Porumamilla in Cuddapah District, in Andhra Pradesh. Its water-spread is about 41.4 km². It is a natural site for a reservoir. The earth dam that was constructed to form the reservoir is about 1,372 m in length. Its total length inclusive of the hills is 267 m. It is 45.7 m wide at the base, 3.7 m at the top, and is 10.0 m in height. It has two sources of supply, viz. the River Maldevi, and the other an artificial channel constructed recently. It was provided with four sluices, and the front slope was revetted with Cuddapah stone slabs.

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The inscription also gives general specifications for the selection of a tank site and its construction. It enumerates the following twelve requisites for a good tank. Firstly, a righteous king, wealthy, happy and desirous of acquiring fame. A person well versed in ‘pathas shastra’ (hydrology). Hard soil in the bed of the tank. A river with sweet water with a course of about 38.6 km. Two projecting portions of hills. Between these projecting portions of hills a dam built of compact stone, not too long but firm. The two extremities of the hills should be devoid of fruit-bearing trees. The bed of the tank should be extensive and deep. Presence of a quarry nearby, containing straight and long stones. Fertile, low and level land in the neighbourhood to be irrigated. A watercourse with strong eddies in the mountain region. Lastly, masons, skilled in the art of tank construction.

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The inscription also enjoins that the following six faults should be avoided: oozing of water from the dam; saline soil; location of site at the boundary of two kingdoms; high ground in the middle of the tank; scanty water supply and too extensive area to be irrigated, and too little land to be irrigated and excessive supply of water.’¹

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¹ Development of Irrigation in India, pp. 38, 39

Devaraya I (A.D. 1406-1422)

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During the rule of Devaraya I, Sultan Firuz conquered several districts of Vijayanagar and he also invaded the capital. Devaraya sued for peace, but the Sultan demanded, in addition to gold, his daughter in marriage, and the fort of Bankapur. Taking advantage of Devaraya’s predicament, the Reddis of Kondavidu liberated their territory.

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Devaraya I realized the value of cavalry in warfare. By purchasing large number of horses from Arabia and Persia and recruiting troopers to man them, he improved the fighting capacity of his army. He was also the first ruler of Vijayanagar to employ Turkish bowmen whom he attracted by liberal grants of land and money. Under his fostering care the Vijayanagar army became an efficient tool of war, and enabled him to withstand the long-drawn contest with the Bahmani Sultan Firuz Shah.

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An ardent Shaivite, Devaraya I was a devotee of the Goddess Pampa of the Tampi-tirtha. He built several temples at Vijayanagar. During his rule Vijayanagar became the chief centre of learning in South India to which scholars seeking fame and recognition came in large numbers.

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During the rule of Devaraya I an Italian, Nicolo Conti, visited Vijayanagar. Describing the capital he states, ‘The great city of Bizenegalia is situated near very steep mountains. The circumference of the city is sixty miles (96.5 km); its walls are carried up to the mountains and enclose the valleys at their foot, so that its extent is thereby increased. In this city there are estimated to be ninety thousand men fit to bear arms.’ Regarding Devaraya I, Nicolo states, ‘Their king is more powerful than all the other kings of India. He takes to himself 12,000 wives of whom 4,000 follow him on foot wherever he may go, and are employed solely in the service of the kitchen. A like number, more handsomely equipped, ride on horse-back. The remainder are carried by men in litters, of whom 2,000 or 3,000 are selected as his wives on condition that at his death they should voluntarily burn themselves with him, which is considered to be a great honour for them.’

Devaraya II (A.D. 1425-1446)

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Devaraya II conquered the Reddi lands of Kondavidu, and thus established River Krishna as his north-east boundary. Devaraya II was a great monarch, who was the master of an extensive empire which extended from River Krishna to Ceylon and from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal. Besides the taxes collected from his dominions, he collected revenue from the numerous ports of his empire. His fleet scoured the seas, and levied tribute from Quilon, Ceylon and Pegu. It was during his reign in A.D. 1443 that Abdur-Razzak of Herat, who was sent by Sultan Shahrukh of Samarkand, son of Timur, as ambassador to the Zamorin of Calicut, came to Vijayanagar. Abdur-Razzak thus describes Devaraya II. ‘The king was dressed in a robe of green satin; around his neck he wore a collar, composed of pearls of beautiful water, and other splendid gems. He had an olive complexion, his frame was thin, and he was rather tall; on his cheeks might be seen a slight down, but there was no beard on his chin. The expression of his countenance was extremely pleasing.’

Use of Palm-Leaves for Writing

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In Vijayanagar Abdur-Razzak saw that palm-leaves were used for writing and paper was not known. He observes, ‘The inhabitants of Cambay alone use paper. All other Indians write on the leaves of trees.’

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FIG. 11. Village of Hampi at the site of the ancient city of Vijayanagar.

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FIG. 12. Vitthalaswami temple at Hampi. Mandapa and stone processional car, Vijayanagar, 16th century.

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FIG. 13. A Hallikar bull, Hallikar is the best draft breed in India and it enjoyed patronage of the rulers of Vijayanagar.

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FIG. 14. A Nellore ram from Andhra Pradesh. The Nellore is the tallest breed of sheep in India.

Love for Flowers

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Abdur Razzak also observed that the people of Vijayanagar had great love for flowers. He states, ‘Roses are sold everywhere. These people could not live without roses, and they look upon them as quite as necessary as food....’ Even at present there is great love for flowers among South Indians, who use them for personal adornment and worship. Abdur-Razzak continues, ‘Each class of men belonging to each profession has shops contiguous, the one to the other; the jewellers sell publicly in the bazars pearls, rubies, emeralds, and diamonds. In this agreeable locality, as well as in the king’s palace, one sees numerous running streams and canals formed of chiselled stone, polished and smooth.’

The Country

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Describing the country, Abdur-Razzak states, ‘The Country is for the most part well cultivated and fertile, and about three hundred good seaports belong to it. There are more than 1,000 elephants, lofty as the hills and gigantic as demons. The army consists of eleven lacs of men. The city of Bijanagar is such that eye has not seen nor ear heard of any place resembling it upon the whole earth. It is so built that it has seven fortified walls, one within the other. Between the first, second, and third walls, there are cultivated fields, gardens, and houses. From the third to the seventh, fortress, shops and bazars are closely crowded together. The bazars are very broad and long, so that the sellers of flowers, notwithstanding that they place high stands before their shops, are yet able to sell flowers from both sides. Sweet-scented flowers are always procurable fresh in that city, and they are considered as even necessary sustenance, seeing that without them they could not exist. This country is so well populated that it is impossible in a reasonable space to convey an idea of it. In the king’s treasury there are chambers, with excavations in them, filled with molten gold, forming one mass. All the inhabitants of the country, whether high or low, even down to the artificers of the bazar, wear jewels and gilt ornaments in their ears and around their necks, arms, wrists, and fingers.

Courtesans

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Prostitution was under state control and served as a source of revenue. Prostitutes were also informers, and when an outsider came and visited them, they passed on information which they could gather to policemen. Abdur-Razzak, who seems to have been impressed by the charms of these women, states, ‘Opposite the mint is the office of the Prefect of the City, to which it is said 12,000 policemen are attached; and their pay, which equals each day 12,000 fanams, is derived from the proceeds of the brothels. The splendour of those houses, the beauty of the heart-ravishers, their blandishments and ogles, are beyond all description. It is best to be brief on the matter. Behind the mint there is a bazar, which is more than 300 yards long and 20 broad (274.32 m × 18.29 m). On two sides of it there are houses (khanaha) and fore-courts (safhaha), and in front of the houses, instead of benches (kursi), lofty seats are built of excellent stone, and on each side of the avenue formed by the houses there are figures of lions, panthers, tigers, and other animals, so well painted as to seem alive. After the time of mid-day prayers, they place at the doors of these houses, which are beautifully decorated, chairs and settees, on which the courtesans seat themselves. Every one is covered with pearls, precious stones, and costly garments. They are all exceedingly young and beautiful. Each has one or two slave girls standing before her, who invite and allure to indulgence and pleasure.’

Pan (Betel-Leaf) and Its Stimulating Effect

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Abdur-Razzak observed that chewing of pān (betel-leaf) was a common practice at Vijayanagar, and he attributes virility of the king to its stimulating properties. He states, ‘This betel is a leaf which resembles that of an orange, but is longer. It is held in great esteem in Hindustan, in the many parts of Arabia, and the kingdom of Hormuz; and indeed it deserves its reputation. It is eaten in this way: they bruise a piece of areca-nut, which they also call supari, and place it in the mouth; and moistening a leaf of betel (or pān) together with a grain of quick-lime, they rub one on the other, roll them up together, and place them in the mouth. Thus they place as many as four leaves together in their mouths, and chew them. Sometimes they mix camphor with it, and from time to time discharge their spittle, which becomes red from the use of the betel.

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‘This masticatory lightens up the countenance and excites an intoxication like that caused by wine. It relieves hunger, stimulates the organs of digestion, disinfects the breath, and strengthens the teeth. It is impossible to describe, and delicacy forbids me to expatiate on its invigorating and aphrodisiac virtues.

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‘It is probably owing to the stimulating properties of this leaf, and to the aid of this plant, that the king of that country is enabled to entertain so large a seraglio; for it is said that it contains as many as 700 princesses and concubines.’

King’s White Elephant and Method of Catching Elephants

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Abdur-Razzak observed that Devaraya II had many elephants. He thus describes the king’s white elephant, its daily diet, and how elephants were caught, and the story of a clever elephant. ‘Opposite the minister’s office are the elephant sheds. The king has many elephants in the country, but the large ones are specially reserved for the palace. Between the first and second enceinte of the city, and between the northern and western faces, the breeding of elephants takes place, and it is there the young ones are produced. The king has a white elephant, exceedingly large, with here and there as many as thirty spots of colours.

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'Every morning this animal is brought into the presence of the monarch; for to cast eye upon him is thought a favourable omen. The palace elephants are fed on *kichu*, which, after being cooked, is turned out from the cauldron before the elephant, and after being sprinkled with salt and moist sugar, is made into a mass, and then balls of about two *mans* each are dipped in butter, and are then placed by the keepers in the mouths of the animals. If any of these ingredients is forgotten, the elephant is ready to kill his keeper, and the king also severely punishes his negligence. They are fed twice a day in this way. Each has a separate stall; the walls are very strong and high, and are covered with strong wood. The chains on the necks and backs of the elephants are firmly attached to the beams above; if the chains were bound any other way, the elephants would easily detach themselves. Chains are also bound upon the fore-legs.

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'The manner in which they catch elephants is this: they dig a pit in the way by which the animal usually goes to drink, which they cover over lightly. When an elephant falls into it, no man is allowed to go near the animal for two or three days; at the end of that period, a man comes up and strikes him several hard blows with a bludgeon, when suddenly another man appears who drives off the striker, and seizing the bludgeon, throws it away. He then retires, after placing some forage before the elephant. This practice is repeated for several days; the first lays on the blows, and the second drives him away, until the animal begins to have a liking for his protector, who by degrees approaches the animal, and places before it the fruits which elephants are partial to, and scratches and rubs the animal, until by this kind of treatment, he becomes tame, and submits his neck to the chain.

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'They tell the following story of an elephant that fled from his bondage, and absconded to the deserts and the jungles. His keeper, in pursuit of him, dug pits in the paths which he was likely to frequent. The elephant, apprehensive of his artifices, seizing a club, and holding it like a staff in his trunk, kept feeling and sounding the earth with great caution as he advanced; and so arrived at the drinking ford. The elephant-drivers despaired of taking him, but as the king was very anxious to have him caught, one of the keepers mounted a tree under which the elephant was likely to go, and there lay hid, till at the moment of his passing underneath, he threw himself down on the back of the animal, and seizing the strong cord which they strap over the back and chest of those animals, and which had not yet been detached, he held it fast within his grasp. In spite of all the turnings and motions which the elephant made to escape, and in spite of his lashing with his trunk, it was all of no avail. When he began rolling upon his side, the keeper leapt upon the flank which remained uppermost, and meanwhile struck the animal several sharp blows upon the head, so that, being at last exhausted, the beast gave in, and submitted his body to the bonds, and his neck to the fetters. The keeper brought the elephant into the presence of the king, who bestowed a handsome reward upon him.

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‘The kings of Hindustan go out hunting elephants, and remain a month or more in the jungles, and when they capture elephants they rejoice at their success. Sometimes they order criminals to be cast down before the feet of an elephant, that they may be killed by its knees, trunk, and tusks. Merchants carry elephants from Silan to different countries, and sell them according to their height, so much more being demanded for each additional yard’.a

Krishnadevaraya (A.D. 1509-1529)—Administrator, Statesman, Builder and Scholar

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Krishnadevaraya was the greatest of the Vijayanagar kings. He brought entire South India under his rule. Within six months of his accession he had met the attack of Sultan Mahmud of Bidar and had thrown him back wounded. Yusuf ’Adil Khan, attempting to stem his advance, was defeated and killed. In A.D. 1510 he again advanced north, besieging Raichur, Gulburga and Bidar.

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With the north secure, Krishnadevaraya was able to turn south, and there he overthrew the rebels of Ummattur, whose territory was made into a new province with Sriringapattanam as its capital. Thereafter he turned against the Oriya ruler, Prataparudra, from whom he wrested Kondavidu and the lands up to the Krishna. From Bezwada he pushed westwards into Telingana, and then, in A.D. 1516-17, to beyond the Godavari. His most famous battle took place on 19 May 1520, and resulted in the recovery of the fortress of Raichur from Ismail ’Adil Shah of Bijapur.

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Local administration was entrusted to three chiefs, the most distinguished among whom was Kempa Gauda of Bangalura (Bangalore).

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Domingo Paes, a Portuguese merchant, who visited Vijayanagar in A.D. 1520, gives the following description of Krishnadevaraya. ‘This king is of medium height, and of fair complexion and good figure, rather fat than thin; he has on his face signs of small-pox. He is the most feared and perfect king that could possibly be, cheerful of disposition and very merry; he is one that seeks to honour foreigners, and receives them kindly, asking about all their affairs whatever their condition may be. He is a great ruler and a man of much justice, but subject to sudden fits of rage, and this is his title: ‘Crisnarao Macacão, king of kings, lord of the greater lords of India, lord of the three seas and of the land.’

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‘Krishna Raya’s kindness to the fallen enemy, his acts of mercy and charity towards the residents of captured cities, his great military prowess which endeared him alike to his feudatory chiefs and to his subjects, the royal reception and kindness that he invariably bestowed upon foreign embassies, his imposing personal appearance, his genial look and polite conversation which distinguished a pure and dignified life, his love for literature and for religion, and his solicitude for the welfare of his people, and, above all, the almost fabulous wealth that he conferred as endowments on temples and Brahmans, mark him out indeed as the greatest of the South Indian monarchs,³ states Krishna Sastri.

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a Abdur Razzak, Matla'u-s Sa'dain, in Elliot and Dowson, *The History of India*..., Vol. IV, pp. 105-114

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³ Krishna Sastri, Ann. Rep. A. S. India for 1908-9, p. 186

Patronage to Literature, Art and Temple Building

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Krishnadevaraya was a poet and author and a patron of art and literature. Scholars, poets and philosophers came to his court in search of patronage. He gave great encouragement to the development of Telugu literature. His poet laureate, Alasani Peddana, is regarded as an author of the first rank in Telugu.

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Spectacles are associated with scholarship. The use of spectacles in Europe is dated to about A.D. 1250. We learn about the use of spectacles by Vyasaraya, guru of Krishnadevaraya, about A.D. 1520. These were presented to him by a Portuguese.⁴

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⁴ Gode, P. K. Studies in Indian Cultural History, Vol. III, p. 108

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Krishnadevaraya’s reign witnessed activity in temple-building rivalling those of Chola kings. A prominent feature of Vijayanagar temples is the Kalyanamandapa, a large hall with ornate pillars. Another feature is the towering gate-way. Goddesses were provided with separate shrines. At the beginning of his reign he built a gopura and repaired another, at the Hampi temple, which had been built by the early kings in honour of Madhavacharya, the founder of the fortunes of Vijayanagar. The great Krishnasvami temple was built by him in A.D. 1513, after his return from a successful campaign in the east. In the same year he commenced the temple of Hazāra Ramā-svami. This temple is studded with panels narrating the Ramayana story. Its prakara walls are decorated with friezes depicting dance, music and folk festivals. The Vitthala temple, which is one of the largest, was commenced by Krishnadevaraya in A.D. 1513 and was still not complete when the Empire fell in A.D. 1565. Immense towers called Raya-gopurams were added to the outermost procession paths of pre-existing temple-complexes of importance, e.g. the Ekamranatha at Kanchi, the Arunachala at Tiruvannamalai (North Arcot district), and the Shiva temple at Kalahasti (Chittoor district). Construction of pillared halls with prancing horses as decoration on the columns became a favourite device. Such equine decoration can be seen at its best in the temple at Srirangam.

The City of Vijayanagar

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Domingo Paes was greatly impressed by the city of Vijayanagar. ‘The size of this city I do not write here,’ states Paes, ‘because it cannot all be seen from any one spot, but I climbed a hill whence I could see a great part of it; I could not see it all because it lies between several ranges of hills. What I saw from thence seemed to me as large as Rome, and very beautiful to the sight; there are many groves of trees within it, in the gardens of the houses, and many conduits of water which flow into the midst of it, and in places there are lakes; and the king has close to his palace a palm-grove and other rich-bearing fruit-trees. Below the Moorish quarter is a little river, and on this side are many orchards and gardens with many fruit-trees, for the most part mangoes and areca-palms and jack-trees, and also many lime and orange-trees, growing so closely one to another that it appears like a thick forest; and there are also white grapes. All the water which is in the city comes from the two tanks of which I have spoken, outside the first enclosing wall.

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‘Going forward, you have a broad and beautiful street, full of rows of fine houses and streets of the sort I have described, and it is to be understood that the houses belong to men rich enough to afford such. In this street live many merchants, and there you will find all sorts of rubies, and diamonds, and emeralds, and pearls, and seed-pearls, and cloths, and every other sort of thing there is on earth and that you may wish to buy. Then you have there every evening a fair where they sell many common horses and nags, and also many citrons, and limes, and oranges, and grapes, and every other kind of garden stuff, and wood.

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‘On every Friday you have a fair there, with many pigs and fowls and dried fish from the sea, and other things, the produce of the country.’

The Country-Side

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Domingo Paes thus describes the country-side. ‘It is a country sparsely wooded except along this serra on the east, but in places you walk for two or three leagues under groves of trees; and behind cities and towns and villages they have plantations of mangoes, and jack-fruit trees, and tamarinds and other very large trees, which form resting-places where merchants halt with their merchandise. I saw in the city of Recalem a tree under which we lodged three hundred and twenty horses, standing in order as in their stables, and all over the country you may see many small trees. These dominions are very well cultivated and very fertile, and are provided with quantities of cattle, such as cows, buffaloes, and sheep; also of birds, both those belonging to the hills and those reared at home, and this in greater abundance than in our tracts. The land has plenty of rice and jowar, grains, beans, and other kind of crops which are not sown in our parts; also an infinity of cotton. Of the grain there is a great quantity, because, besides being used as food for men, it is also used for horses, since there is no other kind of barley; and this country has also much wheat, and that good. The whole country is thickly populated with cities and towns and villages.’⁵

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⁵ Sewell, R. *A Forgotten Empire, Vijayanagar*, p. 230

Land Revenue Assessment

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‘The assessment varied according to the type of land under cultivation—whether wet, dry, or garden land. The revenue was taken either in cash or kind as it suited the ruler at the time, but the burden on the peasant was in any case crushingly heavy. Nuniz states that they ‘pay nine-tenths to their lord.’ Such a proportion of the gross produce seems improbable, but what is clear is that to the observer the demand seemed inordinately high. Evidence of village revolt against the burden and the observations of later travellers tend to confirm Nuniz. All agree that while the nobles lived in luxury, the mass of the people went all but naked and lived in hovels. The cultivators were not allowed to retain the fruits of their labour, and their lives were miserable. This was the inevitable result of maintenance of a large army which consumed most of the revenue.

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Wilks and later authorities also refer to the multitude of vexatious cesses levied upon peasant and merchant alike. Trade was hampered by heavy city dues and by the existence of numerous toll-stations upon the roads. ‘At the end of the century, too, the missionaries insist on the need for passports in this part of India in order to avoid infinite trouble regarding dues and taxes.’⁶

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⁶ Smith, V.A. *The Oxford History of India*, pp. 313-314

Construction of Vijayanagar Dam

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Later in his reign Krishnadevaraya busied himself in improving the irrigation of the dry lands about Vijayanagar. He constructed in A.D. 1521 the great dam and channel at Korragal, and the Basavanna channel, both of which are still in use and of great value to the country.

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Another great work of his was the construction of an enormous tank of dammed-up lake at the capital, which he carried out with the aid of Joao de la Ponte, a Portuguese engineer, whose services were lent to him by the governor-general of Goa. Both Paes and Nuniz mention this lake, and as the former actually saw it under construction it may have been begun in A.D. 1520. This is the large lake, now dry, to be seen at the north-western mouth of the valley entering into the Sandur hills south-west of Hospet.

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Describing how the Vijayanagar dam was built, Paes writes, ‘This king also made in his time a lake for water, which lies between two very lofty *serras*. But since he had no means in the country for making it, nor any one who could do it, he sent to Goa to ask the Governor to send some Portuguese masons, and the Governor sent him Joao de la Ponte, a great worker in stone, to whom the King told how he wanted the tank built. Though it seemed to this man (*mestre*, modern *maistry*) impossible to be made, he told the King he would do it and asked him to have lime prepared, at which the King laughed much, for in his country when they build a house they do not understand how to use lime. The King commanded to throw down quantities of stone and cast down many great rocks into the valley, but everything fell to pieces, so that all the work done in the day was destroyed each night, and the King, amazed at this, sent to call his wise men and sorcerers and asked them what they thought of this thing. They told him that his idols were not pleased with this work, it being so great and he giving them nothing, and that unless he spilled there the blood of men or women or buffaloes that work would never be finished. So the King sent to bring hither all the men who were his prisoners, and who deserved death, and ordered them there to be beheaded; and with this the work advanced. He made a bank across the middle of the valley so lofty and wide that it was a cross-bow shot in breadth and length, and had large sluices; and below it he put pipes by which the water escaped, and when they wish so to do they close these. By means of this water they made many improvements in the city, and many channels by which they irrigated rice-fields and gardens, and in order that they might improve their lands he gave the people the lands which are irrigated by this water free for nine years, until they had made their improvements, so that the revenue already amounts to 20,000 *pardaos*.⁷

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⁷ Sewell, R. *A Forgotten Empire, Vijayanagar*, pp. 345-347

Crops, Fruits and Vegetables

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'This is the best provided city in the world', states Paes, 'and is stocked with provisions such as rice, wheat, grains, *jowar* and a certain amount of barley and beans, *moong*, pulses, horse-gram, and many other seeds which grow in this country which are the food of the people, and there is large store of these and very cheap; but wheat is not so common as the other grains, since no one eats it except the Moors. The streets and markets are full of laden oxen without count.'

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'Then to see the many loads of limes that come each day, such that those of Povos are of no account, and also loads of sweet and sour oranges, and wild brinjals, and other garden stuff in such abundance as to stupefy one. There are many pomegranates also; grapes are sold at three bunches a *fanam*, and pomegranates ten a *fanam*.'

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FIG. 15. Sculpture reliefs on the plinth of Vitthalaswami temple, Hampi, showing hunting scenes. Hunters are shooting arrows at flocks of deer. In the third panel a man on horse-back is fighting a lion. The fifth panel depicts dancers. (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India)

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FIG. 16. Throne platform reliefs, Vijayanagar, 16th century. Elephants are shown in the first two panels. The first panel shows an encounter between a lion and an elephant. The fourth panel shows horses being led by grooms, walking, prancing and galloping. The last two panels showing camels are from the plinth of Vitthalasvami temple. (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India)

Observations of Fernao Nuniz

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Vijayanagar was visited by another Portuguese, Fernao Nuniz, in A.D. 1535. ‘By means of this water they made round about the city,’ observed Nuniz, ‘a quantity of gardens and orchards and great groves of trees and vineyards, of which this country has many, and many plantations of lemons and oranges and roses, and other trees which in this country bear very good fruit.’

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Nuniz further observes, ‘In both these cities there is no provision or merchandise whatever, for all comes from outside on pack-oxen, since in this country they always use beasts for burden; and every day there enter by these gates 2,000 oxen, and every one of these pays three vintees, except certain polled oxen without horns, which never pay anything in any part of the realm.

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‘Outside these two cities are fields and places richly cultivated with wheat and gram and rice and millet, for this last is the grain which is most consumed in the land; and next to it betel, which is a thing that in the greater part of the country they always eat and carry in the mouth.

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‘Everything has to be sold alive so that each one may know what he buys—this at least so far as concerns game—and there are fish from the rivers in large quantities. The markets are always overflowing with abundance of fruits, grapes, oranges, limes, pomegranates, jack-fruit, and mangoes, and all very cheap. It is said that in the markets they give twelve live sheep for a pardao, and in the hills they give fourteen or fifteen for a pardao.’

Domestic Animals

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‘In this land they do not slaughter oxen or cows,’ states Paes. ‘The oxen are beasts of burden and are like sumpter-mules; these carry all their goods. They worship the cows, and have them in their pagodas made in stone, and also bulls; they have many bulls that they present to these pagodas, and these bulls go about the city without any one causing them any harm or loss. Further, there are asses in this country, but they are small, and they use them only for little things; those that wash clothes lay the clothes on them, and use them for this more than for anything else.’ Even at present washermen use asses for carrying clothes to rivers in India.

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‘There are also in this city places where they sell live sheep; you will see the fields round the city full of them, and also of cows and buffaloes—it is a very pretty sight to see—and also the many she-goats and kids, and the he-goats so large that they are bridled and saddled. Many sheep are like that also and boys ride them.’ The reference is to Nellore breed which is the tallest breed of sheep in India. Rams are horned and have long hair on the dewlap and brisket (Fig. 14).

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‘Then the sheep that they kill every day are countless, one could not number them, for in every street there are men who will sell you mutton, so clean and so fat that it looks like pork; and you also have pigs in some streets of butchers' houses so white and clean that you could never see better in any country; a pig is worth four or five *fanams*.

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'For the state of this city is not like that of other cities, which often fail of supplies and provisions, for in this one everything abounds; and also the quantity of butter and oil and milk sold every day, that is a thing I cannot refrain from mentioning; and as for the rearing of cows and buffaloes which goes on in the city, there is so much that you will go very far before you find another like it.'

Hallikar Cattle

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Here a mention may be made of Hallikar breed of cattle, which is characteristic of South India. Hallikar cows are poor milkers, but the bullocks are excellent draft animals. Joshi and Phillips state, 'The Hallikar is one of the best all-round draft types that is available in southern India. It is strong, spirited and quick. Thirty to forty miles (48 to 64 km) a day on rough road is a common day's work. In the field it is a fast and yet a steady worker, being useful for all types of cultivation. Males are castrated when they are 3 to 4 years old and then gradually broken to yoke. Prior to this period, living in a semi-wild state, they are extremely unruly and vicious. It requires several months of kind treatment and patient training to develop them into fine bullocks (Fig. 13). Hallikar bullocks attracted great attention during the nineteenth century on account of their power of endurance and the speed with which they could move army equipment. It is claimed that they could manoeuvre a march of 100 miles (161 km) in two and a half days.

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Kristnasamiengar and Pease, from a study of historical records, state that between A.D. 1572 and 1600 a state herd establishment consisted of Hallikar cows was imported in Mysore from the State of Vijayanagar. This very herd was later transferred to the rulers of Mysore State and was eventually known as Amrit Mahal. Kristnasamiengar and Pease further mention that cattle of Amrit Mahal establishment originally comprised three distinct varieties: Hallikar, Hagalvadi and Chitaldroog. Prior to A.D. 1860, it seems that these three varieties were maintained separate from each other. In A.D. 1860, the whole establishment was liquidated for reasons of economy. In A.D. 1866, it was realized that an establishment for the supply of cattle was a necessity, and a herd was re-established. Thus, the foundation cattle from which the Amrit Mahal breed was developed were of the Hallikar and closely related types.

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Amrit Mahal literally means the department of milk. Originally the rulers of Mysore State had started an establishment of cattle collected from the prevalent types of cattle within the area for the supply of milk and milk products to the palace; simultaneously the bullocks from this establishment were utilized for the movement of army equipage.⁸

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⁸ Joshi, N. R. and Phillips, R. W. Zebu Cattle of India and Pakistan, p. 209

Animals Depicted in Sculpture Reliefs

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On the throne platform and the plinth of Vitthala temple are sculptures in relief which depict the life of the people. They tell us in a realistic manner about the activities of the people at Vijayanagar which no book on history can convey. Among them are hunting scenes. Hunters armed with long bows are depicted shooting arrows at deer. Warriors armed with lances are shown fighting lions. At the bottom are female dancers depicted in seductive poses (Fig. 15). Long rows of camels are carved. Some of the camels are ridden and others are being led. The presence of so many camels in these friezes indicates that they were used for transport of goods for the army of Vijayanagar rulers (Fig. 16). The greatest favourites of the Vijayanagar sculptors were horses. They are depicted slowly walking, prancing and galloping. On the top are majestic elephants ambling along, conscious of their dignity. Another panel shows a confrontation between a lion and an elephant (Fig.16).

Birds

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Paes also describes the birds and poultry. ‘In this country there are many partridges, but they are not of the same sort or quality as ours; they are like the estarnas of Italy. There are three sorts of these: one class has only a small spur such as those of Portugal have; another class has on each foot two very sharp spurs, almost as long and thick as one’s finger; the other class is painted, and of these you will find the markets full; as also of quails. and hares, and all kinds of wild fowl, and other birds which live in the lakes and which look like geese. All these birds and game animals they sell alive, and they are very cheap, for they give six or eight partridges for a vintem, and of hares they give two and sometimes one. Of other birds they give so many that you would hardly pay any attention to the little ones they give you, such as doves and pigeons, and the common birds of the country. The doves are of two kinds; some are like those in Portugal, others are as large as thrushes; of the doves they give twelve or fourteen for a favao.

Poultry

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‘There is much poultry; they give three fowls in the city for a coin worth a vintem (1 7/20 of penny), which coins are called favaos; outside the city they give four fowls for a vintem.’⁹

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⁹ Sewell, R. A. Forgotten Empire, Vijayanagar, pp. 347-350

Ruin of Vijayanagar

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Sadasiva was the nominal ruler of Vijayanagar in A.D. 1542, while Ramaraja, the minister wielded all the power. Ramaraja played off the Sultans, one against the other. In A.D. 1564 the Sultans of Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmadnagar, and Bidar combined against Vijayanagar. Ramaraja was defeated at Talikota in 23 January 1565. The royal family and their followers fled towards the fortress of Penukonda. Later on the capital was shifted to Chandragiri and finally to Vellore. The fate of Vijayanagar is thus described by Sewell. ‘Then a panic seized the city. The truth became at last apparent. This was not a defeat merely, it was a cataclysm. All hope was gone. The myriad dwellers in the city were left defenceless. No retreat, no flight was possible except to few for the pack-oxen and carts had almost all followed the forces to the war, and they had not returned. Nothing could be done but to bury all treasures, to arm the younger men, and to wait. Next day the place became a prey to the robber tribes and jungle people of the neighbourhood. Hordes of Brinjaris, Lambadis, Kurubas, and the like, pounced down on the hapless city and looted the stores and shops, carrying off great quantities of riches. Couto states that there were six concerted attacks by these people during the day.

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‘The third day saw the beginning of the end. The victorious Mussulmans had halted on the field of battle for rest and refreshment, but now they had reached the capital, and from that time forward for a space of five months Vijayanagar knew no rest. The enemy had come to destroy, and they carried out their object relentlessly. They slaughtered the people without mercy; broke down the temples and palaces; and wreaked such savage vengeance on the abode of the kings that, with the exception of a few great stone-built temples and walls, nothing now remains but a heap of ruins to mark the spot where once the stately buildings stood. They demolished the statues, and even succeeded in breaking the limbs of the huge Narasimha monolith. Nothing seemed to escape them. They broke up the pavilions standing on the huge platform from which the kings used to watch the festivals, and overthrew all the carved work. They lit huge fires in the magnificently decorated buildings forming the temple of Vitthalasvami near the river, and smashed its exquisite stone sculptures. With fire and sword, with crowbars and axes, they carried on day after day their work of destruction. Never perhaps in the history of the world has such havoc been wrought, and wrought so suddenly, on so splendid a city; teeming with a wealthy and industrious population in the full plentitude of prosperity one day, and on the next seized, pillaged, and reduced to ruins, amid scenes of savage massacre and horrors beggaring description.’