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A History of Agriculture in India v2.c79: Chapter 27. Animal Husbandry in India in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries

A History of Agriculture in India v2.c79

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English

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Chapter 27. Animal Husbandry in India in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries

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HORSES, MULES, ASSES, CAMELS, COWS, BUFFALOES, GOATS AND SHEEP

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Horses were in great demand in the Mughal period on account of their speed and usefulness in warfare. They were brought to India by merchants from Iraq, Arabia, Turkey, Turkestan, Iran, Central Asia and Tibet. Akbar, who was fond of horses, had twelve thousand in his stables.

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Horses in royal stables were classified into two categories: *khasa*, those that were not *khasa*. There were six stables of the *khasa* horses, each containing forty choice horses of Arabia and Persia for the Emperor's use.

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The second-class horses were of three kinds, viz. *si-aspi, bist-aspi, dah-aspi*, i.e. belonging to the stables of thirty, twenty and ten.

Breeding

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Much attention was given to the breeding of horses in Mughal India. 'Skilful, experienced men have paid much attention to the breeding of this sensible animal, many of whose habits resemble those of man,' states Abu-l-Fazl, 'and after a short time Hindustan ranked higher in this respect than Arabia, whilst many Indian horses cannot be distinguished from the Arabian or the Iraqi breed. There are fine horses bred in every part of the country; but those of Kachh excel, being equal to the Arabian. It is said that a long time ago an Arab ship was wrecked and driven to the shore of Kachh; and that it had seven choice horses, from which, according to the general belief, the breed of that country originated. In the Panjab, horses are bred resembling Iraqis, especially between the Indus and the Jhelum; they go by the name of Sanuji; so also in the district of Pati Haybatpur, Bajwaral, Tihara, in the Suba of Agra, Mewat, and in the Suba of Ajmer, where the horses have the name of *pachwariya*. In the northern mountainous district of Hindustan, a kind of small but strong horse is bred, which is called *gut*; and in the confine of Bengal, near Cooch Bihar, another kind of horses occurs, which rank between the *gut* and the Turkish horses, and are called *tanghan*; they are strong and powerful.'

Feed and Fodder

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Food and fodder for royal horses was standardized. Abu-l-Fazl states, 'In winter, they give boiled peas or vetch; in summer, grain. The daily allowance includes two *sers* of flour and one and a half *sers* of sugar. In winter, before the horse gets fresh grass, they give it half a *ser* of *ghi*. Two FIG. 41. A Mughal painting showing elephants and camels fighting and men wrestling. c. 1600. (Courtesy: Victoria and Albert Museum, London)

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FIG. 39. ‘Elephant is one of the distinctive animals of India. Indians call it hathi. It is found in the province of Kalpi.’ An illustration to the Babur-nama, 1597. (Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi)

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FIG. 40. Catching elephants in Terai. Frightened by the sound of drums and pipes, the elephants rush about till they are tired and rest under a tree. Hunters throw ropes round their feet and necks and tie them to trees. Jaipur Artist: Lal, 1750. (Courtesy: Maharaja of Jaipur Museum)

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FIG. 42. Hazaras paying tribute to Babur. It includes sheep, a buffalo and gaini cows. An illustration to the Babur-nama, 1597. (Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi)

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dams are daily allowed for hay; but hay is not given when fresh grass is available. About three *bighas* of land will yield sufficient fodder for a horse. When instead of sugar the horses get molasses, they stop the *ghi*; and when the season of fresh grass comes, they give no grain for the first three days, but allow afterwards six *sers* of grain and two *sers* of molasses *per diem*. In other Iraqi and Turki stables, they give seven and a half *sers* of grain. During the cool six months of the year, they give the grain boiled, an allowance of one *dam* being given for boiling one *man* of it. The horses also get once a week a quarter *ser* of salt. When *ghi* and fresh grass are given, each horse, provided its price be above thirty-one *muhurs*, gets also one *ser* of sugar; whilst such as are worth from twenty-one to thirty *muhurs* only get half a *ser*. Horses of less value get no sugar at all. Before green grass is given, horses of a value from twenty-one to upwards of one hundred *muhurs* get one *man* and ten *sers* of *ghi*; such as are worth from eleven to twenty *muhurs* thirty *sers*; but horses up to ten *muhurs* get neither *ghi*, brown sugar, nor green oats. Salt is given at the daily rate one-fiftieth of a *dam*, though it is mostly given in a lump. Iraqi and Turki horses which belong to the court are daily allowed two *d.* for grass; but such of them as are in the country only one and a half.’

Mules

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Mules were used for transport and riding. They were imported from Arabia and Iraq. Their life-span is mentioned as fifty years. In India, mules were bred in Pakhali, the country between Attock and Kashmir. Superior mules were sold at Rs 1,000 *per head*.

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Narrating the good qualities of mules and their breeding, Abu-l-Fazl states, ‘The mule possesses the strength of a horse and the patience of an ass, and though it has not the intelligence of the former it has not the stupidity of the latter. It never forgets the road which it has once travelled. Hence it is liked by His Majesty, and its breeding is encouraged. It is the best animal for carrying burdens and travelling over uneven ground, and it has a very soft step. People generally believe that the male ass couples with a mare, but the opposite connexion also is known to take place. The mule resembles its dam. His Majesty had a young ass coupled with a mare, and they produced a very fine mule.’

Feed and Fodder

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The daily allowance of feed and fodder for mules was as follows: ‘Such mules as were not country-bred were given 6 *s* of grain, and 2 *d* for grass; otherwise, only 1½ *d*. Country-bred mules were given 4 *s* of grain, and 1½ *d* of grass, when at court; otherwise, 1 *d* for grass. Each mule was allowed every week 3½ *jitals* for salt.

Asses

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Asses were employed for carrying loads and for fetching water. They were given three *sers* of grain and grass per day.

Camels

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On account of their usefulness as beasts of burden and their meagre food requirements, camels were in great demand for the Mughal army. Camels were bred in areas now in Rajasthan, Haryana and Sind. Abu-l-Fazl states, ‘Camels are numerous near Ajmer, Jodhpur, Nagor, Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Bhatinda, and Bhatnir; the best are bred in the Suba of Gujarat, near Kachh. But in Sind is the greatest abundance; many inhabitants own ten thousand camels and upwards. The swiftest camels are those of Ajmer, the best for burden are bred in *Thatha*.’ Their life-span is mentioned as about twenty-four years.

Breeding

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Camels are of two types, the two-humped camels from Central Asia, and one-humped from India. Describing their breeding, Abu-l-Fazl narrates, ‘In every country they get hot in winter and couple. The male of two humps goes by the name of Buchur. The young ones of camels are called *nar* (male) and *maya* (female), as the case may be; but His Majesty has given to the *nar* the name of *bughdi*, and to the female that of *jammaza*. The *bughdi* is the better for carrying burdens and for fighting; the *jammaza* excels in swiftness. The Indian camel called *lok* and its female come close to them in swiftness, and even surpass them. The offspring of a *bughur* and a *jammaza* goes by the name of *ghurd*; the female is called *maya ghurd*. If a *bughdi* or a *lok* couples with a *jammaza*, the young one is called *bughdi* or *lok* respectively. But if a *bughdi* or a *lok* couples with an *arwana*, the young male is named after its sire and the young female after its dam. The *lok* is considered superior to the *ghurd* and the *maya ghurd*.’

Food

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As regards food given to the camels, *Ain-i-Akbari* mentions, ‘The following is the allowance of such *bughdis* as are to carry burdens. At the age of two and a half or three years, when they are taken from the herd of the stud dams, a *bughdi* gets 2 *s* of grain; when three and a half to four years old, 5 *s*; up to seven years, 9 *s*; at eight years, 10 *s*. The same rule applies to *bughurs*. Similarly in the case of *jammazas*, *ghurds*, *mayah ghurds*, and *loks*, up to four years of age; but from the fourth to the seventh year, they get 7 *s*, and at the age of eight years, 7½ *s*, at the rate of 28 *dams* per *ser*. As the *ser* has now 30 *dams*, a corresponding deduction is made in the allowance. When *bughdis* are in heat, they eat less. Hence also concession is made, if they get lean, to the extent of 10 *s*; and when the rutting season is over, the Daroghas give out a corresponding extra allowance of grain to make up for the former deficiency.

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'At court, camels are given grass by the government for eight months. Camels on duty inside the town are daily allowed grass at the rate of 2 *d* per head; and those outside the town, 1 *d*. During the four rainy months, and on the march, no allowance is given, the drivers taking the camels to meadows to graze.'

Oiling Camels

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Oil was annually allowed for anointing camels and injecting into their nostrils. For each *bughdi* and *jammaza* 3½ *sers* of sesame oil was annually allowed, viz. three *sers* for anointing, and ½ *ser* for injection into the nose. So also ⅜ *s* of brimstone, and 66 *s* of butter-milk. For other kinds of camels the allowance was ⅝ *s* of brimstone, 6½ *s* of butter-milk, and ⅜ *s* of grease for injecting into the nose-holes.

Camel Fights

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Apart from wrestling, elephant and camel fights were popular pastimes. Abu-l-Fazl states, 'From a regard to the dignity of his court, and the diversion of others, His Majesty orders camel-fights, for which purpose several choice animals are always kept in readiness. The best of these *khasa* camels, which is named Shahpasand,is a country-bred, twelve years old; it overcomes all its antagonists, and exhibits in the manner in which it stoops down or gets up every finesse of the art of wrestling.' In a Mughal painting relating to the reign of Akbar, elephants, camels and men are shown wrestling. While elephants and men are trying holds on each other, the camels are viciously biting each other. To keep up their spirits drums are being lustily beaten, cymbals are clanged and a trumpet blown (Fig. 41).

Cows and Buffaloes

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'Throughout the happy regions of Hindustan, the cow is considered auspicious, and held in great veneration; for by means of this animal, tillage is carried on, the sustenance of life is rendered possible, and the table of the inhabitant is filled with milk, butter-milk, and butter,' states Abu-l-Fazl. 'It is capable of carrying burdens and drawing wheeled carriages, and thus becomes an excellent assistant for the three branches of the government.

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'Though every part of the empire produces cattle of various kinds, those of Gujarat are the best.' The reference is to Kankrej breed (Fig. 41). Sometimes a pair of them are sold at 100 *muhurs*. They will travel 80 *kos* (120 miles) in 24 hours, and surpass even swift horses. Nor do they dung whilst running. The usual price is 20 and 10 *muhurs*. Good cattle are also found in Bengal and the Dakhin. They kneel down at the time of being loaded. The cows give upwards of half a man of milk. In the province of Dehli again, cows are not worth more than 10 rupees. His Majesty once bought a pair of cows for two lacs of dams (5,000 rupees).

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'A cow will live to the age of twenty-five.

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'From his knowledge of the wonderful properties of the cow, His Majesty pays much attention to the improvement of cattle. He divided them into classes, and committed each to the charge of a merciful keeper. One hundred choice cattle were selected as *khasa* and called *kotal*. They are kept in readiness for any service, and forty of them are taken unladen on hunting expeditions. Fifty-one others nearly as good are called *half-kotal*, and fifty-one more, *quarter-kotal*. Any deficiency in the first class is made up from the second, and that of the middle from the third. But these three form the cow stables for His Majesty's use.

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'There is also a species of oxen called *gaini*, small, like *gut*-horses, but very beautiful,' states Abu-l-Fazl. *Gaini* cows are shown in a painting illustrating an anecdote from the *Babur-nama* in which Babur on horse-back is receiving tribute in the form of live-stock from the Hazaras (Fig. 42).

Feed and Fodder

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'Every head of the first *khasa* class was allowed daily 6 *s* of grain, and 1 *d* of grass. The whole stable got daily 1 *man* 19 *s* of molasses, which was distributed by the Darogha. Cattle of the remaining *khasa* classes got daily 6 *s* of gram and grass, but no molasses. The oxen used for travelling carriages got 6 *s* of grain, and grass. First-class *gainis* got 3 *s* of grain, and 1 *d* of grass at court, otherwise only ½ *d*.

Buffaloes

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'A male buffalo (called *arna*) got 8 *s* of wheat flour boiled, 2 *s* of *ghi*, ½ *s* of molasses, 1½ *s* of grain, and 2 *d* of grass. Abu-l-Fazl mentions, "This animal, when young, fights astonishingly, and will tear a lion to pieces. When this peculiar strength is gone, it reaches the second stage, and is used for carrying water. It then gets 8 *s* of grain, and 2 *d* for grass. Female buffaloes used for carrying water got 6 *s* of grain and 2 *d* for grass.

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'The milch-cows, and buffaloes were given grain in proportion to the quantity of milk they gave. A cow gave daily from 1 to 15 *sers* of milk, and a buffalo from 2 to 30 *sers*. The buffaloes of the Panjab were the best in this respect. As soon as the quantity of milk given by each cow had been ascertained, there was demanded two dams weight of *ghi* for every *ser* of milk.

Servants Employed in the Cow Stables

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'In the *khasa* stables, one man was appointed to look after four head of

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Note: *s* is abbreviation of *ser* or *seer*; *d* is abbreviation of *dam*; *man* is maund in English.

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FIG. 43. Kankrej bullocks are fast like horses. They were used for hauling supplies in the Mughal army.

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FIG. 44. Sketches of goats and a Markhor. Mughal, 17th century. (Collection of M. Demotte, Paris)

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FIG. 45. A ram of Marwari breed of sheep, possibly by Mansur. Mughal, 17th century. (Courtesy: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston)

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cattle. Eighteen such keepers in the first stable got 5 *d* per diem, and the remaining keepers, 4 *d*.

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'If a horn of an ox was broken, or the animal got blind, the Darogha was fined one-fourth of the price, or even more, according to the extent of the injury.'¹

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¹ Abu-l-Fazal, *Ain-i-Akbari*, pp. 140-142, 151-161

Goats

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Goats were kept all over the country. Large herds were owned by nomadic shepherds who lived in the arid areas, and considerable number were maintained by individual families of landless people, who depended upon them for their milk supply. Kidding twice in fourteen months, goats had high fertility that ensured their popularity among rural people. Goats provided meat and skins. Goats' meat was popular with the Hindus who had aversion for beef.

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Though the majority of goats were non-descript, there were some outstanding breeds reared in certain areas. We get an idea of the breeds prevalent in Mughal India from a painting which shows a Markhor and five different breeds of goats (Fig. 44). There were white-haired Himalayan goats kept by nomads. There were small short-haired Barbari goats with erect horns. White small-legged Surti goats were popular in Gujarat. The Bantam Bengal goats adapted to meagre feeding were found in the eastern region.

Sheep

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During the Mughal rule, large parts of the country were pastoral, and rearing of sheep was the occupation of many people in the Himalayas, Central India, Rajasthan and north Gujarat. The flocks in the arid areas of Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat put up remarkably with long treks and recurrent droughts. The main breeds were long-eared Lohi, brown-headed Bikaneri and black-faced Marwari yielding white wool. A ram of Marwari breed painted by the artist Mansur shows the care bestowed by its owner, who had tied bells around its neck and also provided it with anklets (Fig. 45).

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Wool was mainly provided by sheep from Kashmir and Rajasthan in Mughal India. Akbar promoted the wool industry, particularly that concerned with manufacture of shawls and carpets. The 'tus' animals supplied fine wool of red, black and white colours. Shawls made of it were famous for their lightness, warmth and softness. In the early days of Akbar's reign shawls and some other costly woollens came from Kashmir, but on account of Akbar's patronage these began to be manufactured in the Punjab. In Lahore alone more than a thousand workshops were established.