A History of Agriculture in India v2.c89: Index
A History of Agriculture in India v2.c89
- Language
- English
Index
v2.c89.1
ABBAS KHAN, 168 land revenue administration, 171 ABDULLA, on low prices, 87 ABDUR-RAZZAK, ambassador to Vijayanagar, 100 Vijayanagar Empire, 100-6 betel chewing, 104 courtesans, 103-4 elephants and elephant catching, 104-5 love for flowers, 103 writing material, 100-1 ABU-L-FAZL Akbar's religion, 197 betel (pān), 214-15 camels, 246 fights, 247 cows and buffaloes, 247-51 feed and fodder, 248 stables, 248-51 crops in India, 212 elephants and elephant catching, 233-38 food for elephants, 238 kinds of elephants, 236 stables for elephants, 238-39 flowers and flowering plants, 218-25 forests, 216 fruits and vegetables, 226-30 import, 226 flowers of India, 218-25 flowers of Iran and Turan, 225 pineapples, 187 sugarcane, 212-13 Todar Mal's revenue system, 201-3 water plants, 229-30 Achhabal garden, 271 ACOSTA, CHRISTOPHORAS, 182 cashewnuts, 187 Aden, Indian merchants, 56 Adi Granth, 326 Afghan rule, 86-87, 168-75 Ibrahim Lodi, 86-87 food-grains, 87 prices, 87 Sher Shah, 168-75 Sikander Lodi, 86 prices, 86
v2.c89.2
Afghanistan, key position, 16 Afif, Shams-i-Siraj, see SHAMS-I-SHIRAJ 'AFIF Aftabi (Sunflower), 223 Agave (Agave americana), 188 Agra Babur's headquarters, 132 crops in the 17th century, 281-82 description of Pelsaert, 252-56 fruits and flowers, 261-62 gardens of Babur, 132, 137-38 Agrarian system of Akbar, 208-9 Agricultural implements, 16th century, 216 Agriculture and Arabs, 8-9 Bahmani kingdom, 118 Sultans of Mandu, 124-25 Tughlaks, 35-36 Zain-ul-Abidin, 126-27 AHMAD, SHAHABU-D-DIN ABU-L 'ABBAS, 36 Ahmadabad textiles, 124 trade centre, 17th century, 293 Ain-i-Akbari, 198 crops in India, 211-13 fish as food, 216-17 food for camels, 246-47 sack-cloth, 280 source book on animal husbandry, 233 AKBAR the Great, 191-98 administrative reforms, 201-10 camp, 191-92 and flowers, 218-25 and fruits, 226 and gardens, 218 pineapples, 187 religion, 95-96 and the Sikhs, 196, 326 and tobacco, 183-84 wool industry, 251 Akbar-nama, 198 ALBERUNI, 19 ALBUQUERQUE, 181 ALI MARDAN KHAN Bari Doab Canal, 279 roads and avenues in Kashmir, 275
v2.c89.3
AL IDRISI on India, 12-15 climate and crops, 12-13 Allamanda (*Allamanda cathartica*), 188-89 Amal-bid, observations of Babur, 151 AMAR DAS, 326 Amaranth (*Amaranthus caudatus*), 184 America fruits from, 179 new sources of plants, 178-79 American plants introduction in India, 182 Amla (*Emblica officinalis*), 149 Amrit Mahal cattle, 114 Amritsar, foundation of, 326 Amusements, Delhi Sultanate, 55 Anandpur creation of Khalsa, 329 fortified by Guru Gobind Singh, 328 invested by Aurangzeb, 329 Anantaraja Sagar, 98-99 ANARKALI, 252 ANGAD, Guru, 326 Animal husbandry, 16th century, 233-39 Animals observations of Babur, 153-55 sculpture, 115 Antelope, milk of, 258 ANWARI, description of gardens, 218 Apples, Kashmir, 270 Apricot, 8 Kashmir, 220 Aquatic animals, Observations of Babur, 155-56 AQUAVIVA, RODOLPHO, and Akbar, 196 Arab architecture, 9 Arab horse and Islam, 2-3 Arabia climate and physical features, 1 location and trade, 2 Arabs agriculture, 8-9 conquest of Sind, 10-12 conquest of Spain, 5-6 control of maritime trade, 56 and medicine, 6 and science, 6-8 Aram Bagh, Agra, 139 Architecture Islamic, 25 Sher Shah, 173
v2.c89.4
ARJAN, Guru, 326 and Akbar, 196 Arrack, *see* Intoxicating drinks Artillery in India, 132 ASAD BEG description of tobacco, 183-84 visit to Bijapur, 121 ASAF KHAN, potatoes at the banquet, 184 ASHRAF, K. M., 72 Asoka Pillars, transported to Delhi, 76-77 Assam, Muslim invasion, 21 Asses 16th century, 246 Vijayanagar, 113 wild, observations of Jahangir, 257 Astrolabe, 7 AURANGZEB financial re-organization, 303 peasantry, flight from the land, 313 re-imposition of *Jizya*, 308 Autumn crops, 67
v2.c89.5
BABUR, ZEHIR-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD, 129-64 on animals and birds, 153-64 artillery, 132 and Daulat Khan Lodi, 132 establishment at Agra, 132 expedition to India, 131-32 flowers, observations on, 151-52 fruits, observations on, 139-51 gardens of, 137-39 India and its people, observations on, 134-36 Babur-nama, 133-34 first book on Natural History of India, 134 flowers, 151-52 garden at Agra, 137 National Museum copy, 137 Bagh Gul-i-Afshan, 138-39 Bagh-i-Kalan, Kabul, 137 Bagh-i-Wafa, 137, 143 (illustr.) Bagh-i-Zaina Dab, 127 Bagh-i-Zainagiri, 127 Bagh-i-Zainakut, 127 Bagh-i-Zainapur, 127 Bahmani Kingdom, 118-22 BAKHTIYAR, MOHAMMAD IBN, 21 BALARAM the Bearer of the Plough, 88 diverting Jamuna, 90 (illustr.)
v2.c89.6
with Krishna, 89 (illustr.) BALBAN, 24-25 BAMZAI, P. N. K., 125, 126 Banana, 8 BANDA BAHADUR, land reforms, 330-31 Bari Doab Canal, 279 BARNI, ZIA-UD-DIN, 27 peasantry of the Gangetic Doab, 62-63 Bat, observations of Babur, 164 Battuta, Ibn, see IBN BATTUTA BAZ BAHADUR, 124-25 Bengal 14th to 16th century, 70, 122-23 agriculture, 123 Ibn Battuta, 70 17th century, 286-88 crops, 287-88 Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana) Akbar's reign, 226 Babur, observations of, 149 BERNIER, FRANCOIS agriculture under the Mughals, 313 crops of Bengal and Kashmir, 286-88 Delhi, 274 peasantry, 313 Betel-leaf (Piper betle) chewing, 104 16th century, 214-15 Vijayanagar, 113 Betel nut, Abu-l-Fazl, 229 Betel vines, Kerala, 69 BEVERIDGE, Mrs A. S., translation of Babur-nama, 134 Bhakti Cult, 88-97 Bholsari, 219 Akbar's reign, 228 Bhun champa, 224 BIDDULPH, WILLIAM, tobacco cultivation, 281 Bihar, famine in the 17th century, 307 Bijapur Adil Shahi dynasty, 120-21 Asad Beg, 121 Birds Babur, observations of, 156 Jahangir, observations of, 256-57 Black cotton soil, 318-19 Botanists, Portuguese, 182 Brazil home of cashewnuts, 187 new plants, 179-80
v2.c89.7
and the Portuguese, 179 Brazil tree (Guaiacum officinale), 179 Brinjals, Vijayanagar, 110 Brinjal-tree, introduced from Brazil, 180 British, and the Portuguese, 182 Broach, 13 BUDAUNI, and Sher Shah, 175 Buffaloes 16th century, 248 Vijayanagar, 113 Bullocks, 113 Hallikar breed, 114 Kankrej breed, 247, 249 (illustr.) Burhal (Artocarpus lakoocha) Babur, observations of, 140-41 Bustard, observations of Babur, 162-63
v2.c89.8
Caliphate, 3-5 Camels history, 2-3 in sculpture, Vijayanagar, 115 16th century, 246-47 Canal irrigation, 79 Canals Kashmir, 127 see also names of individual canals, e.g. Hasli Canal Cardamom, 14 Cashewnuts, introduction in India, 187 Caste-system, and Hindu defeat, 21-22 Cattle Amrit Mahal breed, 114 taxation by Akbar, 206 Cereal crops, description of Ibn Battuta, 66-67 Ceylon cinnamon, 216 rubber plant, 179 Chach-nama, 14 Chahar-Bagh design, 9 CHAITANYA, 93 Chalta, 219 Chambeli (Jasminum officinale forma grandiflorum), 213, 265 Chameleon, observations of Babur, 161-62 Chamkaur, 329 Champa (Michelia champaca), 219, 265 Chandni Chowk, 273 Chanpala, 224 Char-Bagh, 137, 138-39 style, 276
v2.c89.9
Char-Chenars, popularized by Jahangir, 270 Charsa irrigation, 136-37 Chashma Shahi garden, 275 Chauth, source of Maratha revenue, 322-23 Chausa, Battle of, 169 Chenar tree, 218 Cherries (shāhālu) introduced in Kashmir, 270 Chess, Indian origin, 55 Chiku (Manilkara kauki), introduction in India, 187 Chillies (Capsicum annuum), introduction in India, 188 China embassy to Muhammad Tughlak, 44 export to India, 14th century, 57 ships and shipping, 56, 57 CHINGIZ KHAN, 22 Chirunji (Buchanania lanzan), observations of Babur, 149 CHISHTI, SHAIKH SALIM, 194 CHURAMAN, Jat leader, 315 Cinnamon, 216 Citrus fruits (Citrus aurantium), observations of Babur, 150-51 Coconut, Abu-l-Fazl, 229 Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) Babur, 150 Maldive islands, 69-70 Manucci, 291-92 Coffee, Mughal India, 262 Coinage, see Currency and coinage Coloquios dos simples e Drogas e cousas medicinais da India, 182 Colour prejudice, Turks, 198 COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER, 178-79 Communication system, Tughlaks, 36-37 Compass, 7 Constantinople, Fall of, 177 CONTI, NICOLO, 100 Conveyances, Delhi Sultanate, 55 Cookery book, Ghiyas-ud-din of Malwa, 124 Cotton and Arabs, 8 and Columbus, 178 fabrics, Bengal 14th century, 70 17th century, 287 Cow-killing, 125 Cow-worship, Vijayanagar, 113 Cows Hallikar breed, 114 16th century, 247-51 stables, 240 Crops introduced by the Portuguese, 182-84 16th century, 211-16 relative value, 212 CUNNINGHAM, J.D., Khalsa, 329 Currency and coinage 14th century, 71 Muhammad Tughlak, 45-48 Custard-apple, introduction in India, 187
v2.c89.10
Damdama Saheb, 329 Dams, Vijayanagar, 109-10 DARA SHIKOH, 303 Dasam Granth, 329 Date-palm (Phoenix dactylifera) and Arabs, 8 Babur, 149-50 Dates, Abu-l-Fazl, 229 Deccan, 17th century, 303-7 Deers, observations of Babur, 154 Delhi under Sultanate, 50-51 transfer of capital, 45-46 Delhi Sultanate agriculture, 35-36 architecture, 58 cereals, 66-67 coinage, 71 granaries, 51 Khaljis, 25-34 paper, 58 peasantry, 26-29 Sayyid Dynasty, 86 Famine and pestilence, 86 Timur, invasion of, 83-86 trees, 65-66 Tughlaks, 35-49, 59-64 urban life, 50-58 wages, 72 weights and measures, 72 Dera Baba Nanak, 97 DEVARAYA I, 99-100 DEVARAYA II, 100 Dhanantar Creeper, 224 Dholpur, Char-bagh of Babur, 138-39 Din Ilahi, 197 Ding (Leptoptilus dubius), observations of Babur, 163 Dinpanah, 166
v2.c89.11
Divisions, administrative, of Akbar, 207 Diwan-i-Anwari, 218 Doab, Gangetic, see Gangetic Doab Dodo (Raphus cuculatus), presented to Jahangir, 257 Domestic animals, Vijayanagar, 113-14 Dress Delhi Sultanate, 54 Marathas, 320 peasantry, 135-36 Ducks, observations of Babur, 163-64 Dupahriya, 224 Dutch and the Portuguese, 181-82 Dutch East India Company, 252 Dyes, and the Arabs, 5
v2.c89.12
Earthquake, Delhi 1720, 310 East Indies plants introduced in India, 182 Eastern Jamuna Canal, 310 Elephants African, 257 Babur, observations of, 153 breeding, 140 catching, 105 failure in wars, 22 feeding, 105 White, 104-5 ELLIOT, Sir HENRY, 16 ELPHINSTONE, M., 319 Energy worship and Akbar, 197 Europe, rural economy, 12th century, 29-30 European novelties and Akbar, 195 Exports, 17th century, 294-97
v2.c89.13
FAIZI, 198 Famines Kashmir, 127 relief measures, 127-28 northern India, 17th century, 307 Sultanate of Delhi, 72 Timur's invasion, 86 Farghana, 129 Farming community, Punjab, 327 Fatehpur Sikri, 194-95 Festivals, Hindu, 62 FINCH, WILLIAM, 216 Fishes, observations of Babur, 155-56 Fisheries, 16th century, 216-17 FIRDAUSI, 17-19 FIRISHTA, KASIM HINDU SHAH, 120 FIROZ SHAH TUGHLAK, 74-82 condition of the people, 81-82 conversion of Hindus, 74-75 hunting and shikar, 74 revenue administration, 77-78 FIRUZ, Bahmani sultan, 118 FITCH, RALPH, 216 Flowers and flowering plants Abu-l-Fazl, 218-25 Babur, 151-52 favourites of Akbar, 218 Jahangir, 262-65 Food habits Delhi Sultanate, 53-54 Marathas, 326 Foodgrains cheapness, 81, 86 prices, 86, 87 Forests, 16th century, 216 Free kitchens, 174 and the Sikhs, 326 Frogs, observations of Babur, 156 Fruit trees Ibn Battuta, 65 Sher Shah, 173 Fruits Akbar's reign, 226-29 dried fruits, 228-29 sour fruits, 228-29 sweet fruits, 226-28 Babur's observations, 139-51 imported in Jahangir's reign, 262 introduced by the Portuguese, 185-89 17th century, 282 Vijayanagar, 110-11
v2.c89.14
Galla baksh (crop-sharing) system, 205 GAMA, VASCO DA, 178 comes to India, 180-81 Game birds, Vijayanagar, 115 Gangetic Doab, ruination of peasantry, 62-63 Gardens and the Arabs, 9 Babur, 132 terraced, 133 Firoz Shah Tughlak, 81 Jahangir, 271-72 tax exemption, 265 Timur, 86 Vijayanagar, 113 Zain-ul-Abidin, Kashmir, 127 Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus), observations of Babur, 155 GHIYAS-UD-DIN TUGH LAK, 35-37 encouragement to agriculture, 35-36 postal system, 36-37 GHORI, SHIHAB-UD-DIN MUHUMMAD, 19-21 Ginger, 68 Gini-cow, observations of Babur, 154 Goa, 181-82 cultivation by the Portuguese, 188 grafting technique developed, 190 mango varieties, 288 pineapple, 188 Goats mountain goats, 257 Mughal India, 251 GOBIND SINGH, 328, 329, 330 GOKUL, Jat leader, 315 Golkonda, 120 Grafting technique, 190 Gram cultivation, Vijayanagar, 113 Granaries, 51 Grapes, 66 Agra, 261, 262 Akbar's reign, 226 gardens of Firoz Shah, 81 Kashmir, 270 Vijayanagar, 110 Groundnuts (*Arachis hypogaea*), introduction in India, 182-83 Guava (*Psidium guajava*), introduction in India, 187 Guerrila bands in Punjab, 332 Gujarat 15th century, 123-24 16th century, 217 17th century, trade, 294 Gular (*Ficus glomerata*), observations of Babur, 149 Gumbhi, 228 Gurhal (*Hibiscus rosa-sinensis*), 223 observations of Babur, 152 Guru Granth, 329
v2.c89.15
HABBA KHATUN, 128 HABIB, IRFAN, 314-15 HABIB, MUHAMMED, 26-27 Delhi under Sultanate, 50-51 Islam as urban social revolution, 52-53 Hallikar cattle, 114 Hampi, *see* Vijayanagar
v2.c89.16
HARGOBIND, Guru, 327 Haryana and Banda Bahadur, 330 first mention, 24 Hasan Abdal garden, 271 Hasli Canal, 279 HENRY the NAVIGATOR, 177-78 Hindu peasantry, Bahmani kingdom, 118 Hindu reaction to Islam, 88-97 Hindus and Akbar, 193-94 Bijapur, 121 conversion to Islam, 15, 52-53 Firoz Shah Tughlak, 74-75 festivals, 62 under Khalji rule, 27-29 and Muslims, 59-60 social relations, 60 Hinna, 224 Hisar Firozah, 78 Horses and Guru Angad, 326 and Islam, 2-3 and the Marathas, 320-21 sculpture, 115 16th century breeding, 240 classification, 240 feed and fodder, 240-45 trade in 14th century, 71 in warfare, 99 Horticulture, and Arabs, 8-9 *see also* Flowers and flowering plants Hunting and shikar, Firoz Shah Tughlak, 74 HUMAYUN, 165-67
v2.c89.17
IBN BATTUTA in Bengal, 70 betel-vines, 69 cereals, 66-67 coconut palm, 69-70 crops, 65, 66-67 Delhi, 50 granaries, 51 fruit trees, 65-66 Hindus and Muslims, 59-60 horse trade with India, 71 Malabar, 68-69 peasantry, 59 river transport, 55-56 suttee, 60-62 toilet, 60 travels in India, 38-40 Delhi, 39 revenue collection, 43 Tughlak postal system, 36-37 IBN HAUKAL, 10 IBN KHURDADBA, 13 IBRAHIM ADIL SHAH, 120-21 IBRAHIM LODI, 86-87 prices of foodgrains, 87-88 wages, 87 ILTUTMISH, 22-23 Imports, 17th century, 297 Indian Ocean, Arab-Portuguese conflict, 181 India eleventh century, 12-15 expeditions of Babur, 131-32 exports, 56 imports, 56 invasion of Timur, 84-86 natural history first book, 134 first painting, 134 ornamental plants from Brazil, 179-80 spread of Islam, 16 Indigo 16th century, 213 17th century cultivation, 282-87 Industry, 17th century, 297-98 Infidels, *see* Hindus Intoxicating drinks, 16th century, 212-13 Iran flowers of, 225 Horticulturists from, 226 Irrigation and the Arabs, 8 Babur, observations of, 136 Bahmani Kingdom, 118 charges, Firoz Shah, 80 Kashmir, 127 Western Jamuna Canal, 79 Irrigation projects, Vijayanagar, 98-99 Iron industry, 17th century, 298 Islam and Christendom, 176-77 creed, 1-2, 26-27 Hindu reaction, 88-89 and India, 16 rise and spread, 1-9 role of camel, 3 role of horse, 2 and the West fashions and textiles, 5-6 manufactures and products, 5-6 scents, 5 spices, 5
v2.c89.18
*Jacaranda mimosifolia*, introduced from Brazil, 180 Jackfruit (*Artocarpus heterophyllus*) Akbar, 227 Babur, 140 Ibn Battuta, 65-66 Manucci, 288-91 *Ja fari* flower, 223 *Jagirs* and *Jagirdars* Aurangzeb, 313-14 Firoz Shah Tughlak, 77-78 management, 169 JAHANGIR animals, observations on, 257 birds, observations on, 256-57 flowers, 262-65 gardens, 261 tax exemption, 265 and Guru Arjan, 326-27 Kashmir Valley, 269-71 milk of antelope, 258 the Naturalist, 252-58 royal bastion, 255 Jain libraries, 58 *Jait* flower, 224 *Jamun* (*Syzygium cumini*), 66 observations of Babur, 140 Jasmine, observations of Babur, 152 Jat peasant revolt, 315 Jats, 94-95 and the Arabs, 10 as cultivators, 327 in revolt, 315 in Sind, 14 Jaunpur, 78 Java, introduction of rubber plant, 179 Jehangir, *see* JAHANGIR Jizya, 75 abolition by Akbar, 194 re-imposition by Aurangzeb, 308 revenue system, 201 JOHN of MARIGNOLA, pepper, 68 *Juti* flower, 220 Jullundur Doab, 132 liberated by Banda Bahadur, 330
v2.c89.19
Jute, 16th century, 280
v2.c89.20
Kabul, gardens of Babur, 137 KABIR, 88-93 Kadam tree, 223 Kamrak (*Averrhoa carambola*), 140 Kaner tree, 223 Kangla-i flower, 224 Kanwal flower, 223 Kapur bel, 220 Karaunda (*Carissa carandas*), 224 observations of Babur, 149 Karil, 224 Kartarpur, 95-96, 326 Kashmir, 125-28 cherries, introduction of, 270 crops, 286 flowers and fruits, 269-70 new varieties, 274 gardens Akbar, Nasim Bagh, 218 Jahangir, 271-72 Shah Jahan, 274-75 saffron cultivation, 16th century, 214 Kashmir Valley Akbar, first Mughal emperor to enter, 218 Jahangir’s description, 269-71 Kasira (*Scirpus grossus*), 66 KAZWINI, Somnath, 17 Keora (*Pandanus odorartissimus*), 219, 265 observations of Babur, 152 Kerala, 14th century, 67-69 Kesu, 223 Ketaki (*Pandanus*), 219, 265 KHAFI KHAN Aurangzeb’s last days, 309 earthquake in Delhi, 310 Jizya and the Hindus, 308 pineapples in Goa, 188 revenue system of the Marathas, 322-23 Satnamis and Satnami revolt, 315-16 Khalji rulers, 25-34 architecture, 25 Mongol invasion, 26 music, 25 peasantry, 26-29 price control, 30-33 rural economy, 29-30 slavery, 33-34 Khalsa, 329, 332 as people’s democracy, 329-30
v2.c89.21
rakhi system, 332 Khan, Ali Mardan, *see* ALI MARDAN KHAN Khatmi flower, 225 Khatris, and Sikhism, 327 Khilafat, *see* Caliphate Khirni (*Manilkara kauki*), 140 KHUSHWANT SINGH, on Jats, 94-95 KHUSRAU, Amir, 25-26 and language, 57 KHUSRU, Prince, and Guru Arjan, 326 Kiratpur, 327 Kishtwar, 270 *Kita’bu-l Masa’lik Wa’l Mama’lik*, 10 Koel (*Eudynamys scolopacea*), 164 Konkan, 318-19 Chitpawan brahmins, 320 occupied by Sivaji, 321 *Kos-minars*, 261 Krishna, pastoral god, 88 KRISHNADEVARAYA, ruler of Vijayanagar, 106-7 improvement of irrigation, 169 Kudhra (*Paspalum scrobiculatum*), 67 Kuza flower, 220
v2.c89.22
Lac industry, 17th century, 298 Lahi, 224 Lahore Shalimar garden, 275 Sher Shah’s plan to destroy, 169 LAHORI, MULLA ABDUL HAMID, 275-76 Land-lease method, Mughals, 311-12 Land reforms, Banda Bahadur, 330 Land revenue regulations of Akbar, 206 Sind, 14-15 source of Mughal finance, 311 system of Todar Mal, 201-3 Tughlaks, 35-36 Vijayanagar, 109 LANE-POOL, S., 191, 206, 311 Langar (community kitchen) experiment in socialism, 95 Kashmir, 126 Sher Shah, 174 Sikhs, 326 Lime (*Citrus aurantifolia*), 151 Lodi dynasty, 86-87 Lote-tree (*Ziziphus lotus*), 65 Lubiya (*Vigna unguiculata*), 67
v2.c89.23
Magpie (*Dendrocitta vagabunda*), 164 Maharashtra, 318-19 MAHMUD GHAZNAVI, 16-19 Alberuni, 19 and Firdausi, 17-18 idol of Somnath, 17 Mahua (*Madhuca indica*), 66, 228 Mahuan of China, 70 Maize, 178 Majha, crade of Sikhism, 327 Sikh revolt, 330 Malabar maritime trade, 56 Portuguese supremacy, 180-81 spices, 14 14th century, 215-16 Malay plants introduced in India, 182 rubber plant, 179 Maldive islands, Ibn Battuta, 69 *Malti* flower, 224 Malwa, 124-25 Mandu, 124 Mangoes Babur, 139 Ibn Battuta, 65 Jahangir, 261-62 Manucci, 288 MANSUR, USTAD, 257, 270 Manual labour and Sikh gurus, 326 MANUCCI, NICCOLAO fruits, 288-92 pineapples, 187 leasing land, 311-12 sarais, 299-300 tax collecting, 311-12 tobacco smoking, 281 Maratha revolt, 324-25 Marathas, 319-21 arms, 320 dress, 320 poor agricultural base, 325 sources of revenue, 322-23 Mardan Khan, Ali, *see* ALI MARDAN KHAN Maritime trade Arab control, 56 with East Africa, 57 with Southeast Asia, 57 *Masaliku-l Absar fi Mamaliku-l Amsar*, 36 *Māsh* (*Vigna radiata*), 67
v2.c89.24
McLEOD, W.H., 96 Sikh militancy, 327 Measurements standardized, 203-5 Meat, 17th century, 282 Mediaeval period, chronology, 334-43 Melons, 8, 270 Meos, 26 Mercantile community, 327 Millets, 113, 211 Minara-i-Zarin, *see* Asoka Pillars MINHAJU-S SIRAJ, 21, 22, 24 Misals, 332 Mongols, 22-23 history, 83 invasion, 26 Monkeys, observations of Babur, 154-55 Moors, *see* Arabs Moplas and the Portuguese, 181 MORELAND, W.H., 212, 216 Mughal, 129-36 Mughal architecture, 194-95 Mughal emperors, 129-64, 165-67, 191-210, 218-25, 252-58, 261-72, 273-79, 303-10 Akbar, 191-210 Aurangzeb, 303-9 Babur, 129-64 Humayun, 165-67 Jahangir the Naturalist, 252-72 Later Mughals, 309-10 Shah Jahan, 273-79 tobacco smoking, 281 Mughal gardens Akbar, 218-25 Babur, 137-39 Jahangir, 271-72 Shah Jahan, 274-76 Mughal painting, development, 133, 167, 195 Mughal paintings *Babur-nama*, 134 *Diwan-i-Anwari*, 218 gardens and gardening, 143 (illustr.), 144 (illustr.), 218, 221 (illustr.) hookah smoking, 281, 283 (illustr.), 284 (illustr.) Mansur, Ustad, 257, 259 (illustr.), 260 (illustr.), 270 MUHAMMAD, Prophet of Islam, 1 MUHAMMED BIN TUGHLAK, 38-49, Mughal, 129-36 59-64 coinage, 46-47 establishment, 42-43 expedition to the Himalayas, 49 manufactory, 43-44 palace, 40-42 peasantry, 62-63 Hindu, 59-60 revenue collection, 43 transfer of the capital, 45-46 MUHAMMAD SHAH, 309-10 MUHAMMAD SHAH III, Bahmani sultan, 119-20 Mulberries, 226 tree, 70 Mules, 16th century, 245 Mulsari (*Mimusops elengi*), 265 MUNDY, PETER, 312 Mungra flower, 219 Muqaddam, village administration, 207-8 MURSHID QULI KHAN, 303-7 Todarmal's revenue system, 304 Music, Hindustani, 25-26 Musk-melons, 226, 262 Muslims, 4-5, 22, *see also* Arabs Mut (*Cyperus rotundus*), 67
v2.c89.25
Nag kesar flower, 223 *Nahar-i Bihisht*, 276 Nalanda, 21 NANAK, Prophet and Farmer, 93-97, 326 anecdotes, 93, 94, 95 followers, 94-95 manual labour, 96 rise of the farming community, 93 similies derived from agriculture, 95-96 Nander, 330 Narcissus, 225 planted by Babur, 138 *Nargis*, *see* Narcissus Nasim Bagh, 218 Nasq (village assessment) system, 205 Navigation Arabs, 7 Portuguese, 177 New World, *see* America *Niamat-nama*, 124 NIKITIN, ATHANASIUS, Bahmani kingdom, 119-20 Nishat Bagh, 271 Niwari, 220 NUNIZ, FERNAO
v2.c89.26
crops in the 16th century, 212 Vijayanagar gardens and orchards, 113 land revenue, 109 NURU-L HAKK, SHAIKH, 173
v2.c89.27
Oleander (*Nerium indicum*), 152 Opium, 16th century, 213-14 Oranges, 8, 66 Akbar's reign, 228-29 Babur, 150-51 Vijayanagar, 110, 111 Orchards Irrigation, 66 Malabar, 68 Taxation by Akbar, 206 Vijayanagar, 113 Ornamental plants Babur, 139 Brazilian, 179-80 ORTA, GRACIA DA, 182 crops in the 16th century, 212 Oxen, as beasts of burden, 113
v2.c89.28
PAES, DOMINGO crops in the 16th century, 212 Vijayanagar, 106 birds and poultry, 114-15 crops, 110 fruits and vegetables, 110-11 Painting, Mughal, *see* Mughal painting Paintings, Natural history, 134 Palmleaves for writing, 100 Palmyra palm, 292 Pan, *see* Betel-leaf Panipat, first battle of, 132 *Paniyala* (*Flacourtia jangomas*), 149, 228 Paper and the Arabs, 6 Bengal, 70 Cambay, 100 Delhi Sultanate, 58 industry, 17th century, 298 Kashmir, 126 Vijayanagar, 100 Papier-mache, 126 Parrot, observations of Babur, 156-61 Partridge, observations of Babur, 162 Patwari, 207-8 Peach, 8 Peacock, observations of Babur, 156
v2.c89.29
Pears, in Kashmir, 270 Peasant economy, Tughlaks, 62-66 Peasant revolts, Mughal period, 314-16 Aurangzeb, 309 Jat revolt, 315 Satnami revolt, 314, 315-16 Sikh revolt, 314 Peasantry Akbar, 208-9 Aurangzeb, 303 Babur, 135-36 Hindu, 59-60 Khalji rule, 26-29 and the Marathas, 324 Mughal period, 312-14 ruination, 62-63 Sher Shah, 172 PELSAERT, FRANCISCO Agra, 252-56 crops, 281-82 indigo cultivation, 282-86 jagirs, 312 peasantry, 312 trade, 293-94 People's democracy and the Khalsa, 329 Pepper, 13, 14 cultivation, 16th century, 216 Egypt, 176 Kerala, 68-69 Persian wheel, observations of Babur, 136-37 Peshwas, 320 Pets, 55 Pilgrimage, 62, 298 Pineapple (*Ananas comosus*) cultivation in Goa, 188 introduction in India, 187 Manucci, 291 Plantain (*Musa paradisiaca*) Akbar, 228 Babur, 139-40 Plague Deccan, 307 first record, 258 Pomegranates, 66 Kashmir, 270 Vijayanagar, 110 PONTE, JOAO DE LA, 109-10 Poor houses, 174 Poppy crop, 16th century, 213-14 Portugal, 176-77 Portuguese as benefactors of India, 190 botanists, 182 Ibrahim Adil Shah, 121 in India, 180-81 decline, 181-82 and navigation, 177-78 trade in Asia, 181 Porumamilla Tank, 98-99 Potato (*Solanum tuberosum*) introduction in Europe, 179 introduction in India, 184 Poultry, 115 Price control, Khalji rule, 30-34 administration, 31 Prices of commodities, Sultanate, 72 Property, Security of, Mughal period, 312 Punjab conversion of Hindus, 15 Kingdom of, 332 mid-18th century, 332 rakhi system, 332 Purdah, Delhi Sultanate, 54
v2.c89.30
Qalgha flower, 225 Quail (*Coturnix cotournix*), 162 Qutb Minar, 22
v2.c89.31
RAJA RAM, Jat leader, 315 Rajputs and Akbar, 198-99 contrasted with the Marathas, 319 Rakhi system, 332 Rambagh, 137 RAM DAS, 326 RANA SANGHA, 133 RANJIT SINGH, 332 Ratanmala, 224 Ratanmanjani, 223 Raybel, 219, 265 Rayhan, 225 RAZIA, SULTAN, 23-24 Reclamation of land, 63-64 Regulation system, Akbar, 205-6 Religions and Akbar, 195-96 Revenue administration, 169-72 Firoz Shah Tughlak, 77-78 Revenue system Akbar, 201 Marathas, 322-23 Todar Mal, 201-3 Tughlaks, 43
v2.c89.32
Rhinoceros, observations of Babur, 153-54 Rice, 8, 67 Bengal, 70 16th century, 211 Vijayanagar, 113 River transport Delhi Sultanate, 55-56 17th century, 294-97 Road tax, 323 Roads, 127, 173-74, 261 ROE, Sir THOMAS, 184, 187 Rose-water, 265 Roses Babur, 138 Kashmir, 269 otto of, 265 Rubber plant (*Hevea brasiliensis*), 179 RUPMATI, 124 Ryatwari system, 208-9
v2.c89.33
Sada-fal (*Citrus paradisi*), 151 Saffron, 220 and Arabs, 8 growing, 220-21 16th century, 213, 214 Samarkand, 129 San (hemp), 224-25 Sangtara (*Citrus reticulata*), 151 Sarais and dharamsalas Akbar, 195 17th century, 299 Sher Shah, 172-73 Saras (*Grus antigone*), 163 SARDESAI, G. S., 319 Sarhind, 329 garden, 272 sacked by Banda Bahadur, 330 Sati, see Suttee Satnami revolt, 314-17 Sayyid dynasty, 86 Scents and perfumes, 5 Science and the Arabs, 6-8 Senbal, 224 Sesame, 67 Sewti flower, 218 SHAH JAHAN, 273-79 gardens of Kashmir and Punjab, 274-76 Shahjahanabad, 273-74 Shalimar Garden, Lahore, 275-76 Shalimar Garden, Srinagar, 271 addition by Shah Jahan, 274
v2.c89.34
SHAMS-I-SIRAJ ‘AFIF, 74, 76-77 condition of the people, 81-82 gardens of Firoz Shah, 81 Hisar Firozah, 78 revenue administration, 77-78 slave-raiding, 75-76 Western Jamuna Canal, 79 Shaqayiq flower, 225 Sharifa (*Annona squamosa*), 187 Sheep, 251 Nellore breed, 113 Sher Khan, see SHER SHAH SHER SHAH, 168-75 revenue system, 203 Sialkot, captured by Babur, 131 SIKANDER LODI, 86 Sikandra, 86, 197 description of Pelsaert, 255-56 Sikhism, 326-32 and Akbar, 196 Sikhs guerrilla warfare, 331-32 Gurus, 326-29 and Nadir Shah, 331 revolt against the Mughals, 314 Silkworms, 70 Sind Arab conquest, 10-11 and Jats, 10 conversion of Hindus, 15 Singarhar flower, 220 Singhara, 229-30 Siras flower, 224 Sivaji, 321-22 Siwalik Hills base for Sikh warfare, 327, 331 Slave dynasty, 22-24 Slave trade and navigation, 178 Slavery, 53, 75-76 SMITH, VINCENT, 19, 60, 118, 198 Social life, Delhi Sultanate, 55 Society, 11th century, 53 Solanum macranthum (brinjal tree), 180 Somnath, 17 Spain, 5, 177 Spectacles, 107 Spices and Arabs, 5 levy by the Turks, 176 quest for, 176-90 16th century, 215-16
v2.c89.35
Squirrel, observations of Babur, 155 Srinagar Mughal gardens Nasim Bagh, 218 Nishat Bagh, 271 Shalimar, 271, 274 Srikandhi, 224 Srikandhi flowers, 224 State farming, Muhammed Bin Tughlak, 63-64 STEVENS, first Englishman in India, 215-16 Storks, observations of Babur, 163 Sudarshan, 224 Sugar, 17th century, 287 Sugarcane, 8, 67, 68 16th century cultivation, 212-13 Sultanate of Delhi, *see* Delhi Sultanate Sun ard, 224 Sunflower, 223, 224 Surpa, 223 Susan flowers, 225 Suttee, 60-62
v2.c89.36
Tabakat-i-Nasiri, 22, 23 Taj Mahal, 276 Taj-i-Khusrus flower, 225 Talicota, 116 Tamarind (*Tamarindus indica*), observations of Babur, 140 Tandu (*Diospyros melanoxylon*), 66 Tank construction, 99 Tagavi loans, Akbar, 207 Taran Taran, 326 Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi, 35 Tarikh-i-Khan Jahan Lodi, 169 Tarkul, 228 Tarri, 228 Tasbih gulal, 219 TAVERNIER, JEANE-BAPTISTE, 313 Taxes and tax collection cattle, 206 fruit gardens, 206 Khalji rule, 28-29 Mughal system, 311-12 remissions, 13th century, 52 Sind, 14-15 TAYLOR, MEADOWS, 118, 120-21 Tea, 70 TEGH BAHADUR, Guru, 328 Textile industry, 17th century, 297-98 THEVENOT, 217
v2.c89.37
TIMUR, 83-86 Tobacco cultivation, 280-81 introduction in India, 183-84 smoking, 281 forbidden for the Sikhs, 329 TODAR MAL, 171, 194 financial reforms, 201 land revenue system, 201-3 revenue system in Deccan, 304 Toddy palm (*Borassus flabellifer*), Babur, 150 Toilet, 60 Trade and commerce, 17th century, 293-94 Transit duties, 17th century, 308 Transportation, 31-32 foodgrains, 294 Tree plantation, 172 Tughlaks, 35-49 Tulips, in Kashmir, 269 Turan, 225, 226 Turkey (*Meleagris gallopavo*), Jahangir, 256-57 painting by Mansur, 254 (illustr.), 257 Turkistan, horse trade, 71 Turks in India, 16-24 rule, 25-49 trade route, 176
v2.c89.38
Urdu language, 57-58
v2.c89.39
Vegetables, Abu-l-Fazl, 230 Verinag, 271 Vijayanagar (Capital city) description of Nicolo Conti, 100 description of Paes, 108 sack of, 116 Vijayanagar Empire Anantaraja Sagar, 98-99 country, 103 description of Paes, 108-9 courtesans, 103 flowers, 103 and Goa, 181-82 irrigation projects, 109-10 Village administration, Akbar, 207-8 Villages, description of Babur, 135
v2.c89.40
Wages, 87 Wah garden, 271 Waqiat-i-Baburi, 133-34 Water-birds, observations of Babur, 163-64
v2.c89.41
Water-tiger (*Crocodilus palustris*), 155 Weights and measures, 72 Well irrigation, Babur, 136-37 Wells, 174 Western Jamuna Canal, 79-80 and cheapness of foodgrain, 81 restored by Shah Jahan, 276-77 Wheat cultivation, 110, 111 Wild-buffalo, observations of Babur, 154 Wild-fowl (*Gallus gallus*), observations of Babur, 162 Women, 124 status, 326 Wool and wool industry, Mughal India, 251 Working class, 13th century, 52
v2.c89.42
YAHYA IBN MUHAMMAD, gardens, 8-9 Yak (*Posephagus grunniens*) observations of Jahangir, 258 painting by Mansur, 258, 260 (illustr.) *Yasman-i kabud* flower, 225
v2.c89.43
ZAFAR KHAN, new varieties of fruits, 274-75 Zainakadal, 127 ZAIN-UL-ABIDIN, ruler of Kashmir, 125-28 agriculture, 126-27 arts and crafts, 126 canals, 127 cow-killing forbidden, 125 famine and famine relief, 127-28 free kitchens, 126 gardens, 127 and Hindus, 125-26 roads, 127 Zamindari system, 208-9 abolition by Banda Bahadur, 330 *Zeba* flower, 225 Zebra (*Equus zebra*) observations of Jahangir, 257 painting by Mansur, 260 (illustr.) Zoroastrianism and Akbar, 196
v2.c89.44
The first of these, the *Gospel of the Hebrews*, was used by the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and was probably a version of the Gospel of Matthew, though it contained some traditions not found in our canonical books. The *Gospel of the Egyptians* was used by the ascetic sects of Egypt, and was marked by a strong tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. The *Gospel of Peter* was used by the Docetists, and taught that Christ did not really suffer, but only appeared to do so.
v2.c89.45
These gospels, and others like them, were not accepted by the Church as a whole, and were gradually lost or suppressed. The Church, however, felt the need for a standard collection of writings that would serve as a guide for faith and practice. This led to the formation of the New Testament canon, a process that took several centuries to complete.
v2.c89.46
The first step in this process was the collection of the letters of Paul, which were widely circulated among the churches. Then came the four Gospels, which were accepted as the authoritative accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles and the other epistles were gradually added, and finally the Book of Revelation.
v2.c89.47
By the end of the second century, the core of the New Testament was generally accepted by the Church. The process of canonization was not a formal act of a council, but rather a gradual recognition by the churches of the writings that were most valuable for their life and worship. It was only in the fourth century that the canon was formally closed by the councils of the Church.
v2.c89.48
The formation of the New Testament canon was a crucial event in the history of the Church. It provided a standard of faith and practice that helped to unify the Church and to protect it from the influence of heretical sects. It also ensured that the teachings of Jesus and the apostles would be preserved for future generations.