[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Science, technology and education](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science) › [A History of Hindu Chemistry from the Earliest Times to the Middle of the Sixteenth Century A.D.](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902) › v1.c13 # A History of Hindu Chemistry from the Earliest Times to the Middle of the Sixteenth Century A.D. v1.c13: Notes on the Minerals A History of Hindu Chemistry from the Earliest Times to the Middle of the Sixteenth Century A.D. v1.c13 - **Language:** English ## Contents - [v1.c13.s1 Alum and Green Vitriol](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1) — 23 parts ### Notes on the Minerals ### [v1.c13.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.1) Diamond : Belief in the combustibility, of diamond (\*vide\* pp. 101-2) was an accepted creed with the Hindu Iatro-Chemists. The reader will find much useful information in the followng extract. ### [v1.c13.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.2) 'This combustibility of the diamond appears to have been observed at an early period, although the fact does not seem to have attracted the general attention of the older chemists, as statements of a contrary character are recorded by them. Thus, for instance, Kunkel states that his father, at the command of Duke Frederick of Holstein, heated diamonds in his gold-melting furnace, for nearly thirty weeks, without their undergoing any change. It is to Newton, however, that we owe the first argument which went to prove that the diamond was capable of undergoing combustion on account of its high refractive power, a property characteristic of the class of oily bodies. In the second book of his \*Opticks\*, Newton says upon the subject, "Again the refraction of camphire, oyl-olive, lint-seed oyl, spirit of turpentine and amber, which are fat sulphureous unctuous bodies, and a diamond, which probably is an unctuous substance coagulated, have their refractive powers in proportion to one another as their densities without any considerable variation." The conclusion to which Newton was led by theoretical considerations was experimentally proved to be correct in the year 1694-5 by Averami. ### [v1.c13.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.3) and Targioni, members of the Academia del Cimento, who, at the request of the Grand Duke Cosmo III., of Tuscany, placed a diamond in the focus of a large burning-glass and observed that it entirely disappeared. Francis I., who is said to have received from an alchemist an anonymous receipt for melting diamonds, exposed, in the year 1751, diamonds and rubies of the value of 6,000 gulden for twenty-four hours to the action of a powerful fire; the rubies were found unaltered, but the diamonds had altogether disappeared. The volatilization of the diamond by means of heat was from this time forwad made the subject of numerous experiments. Thus, Darcet observed in 1766 that diamonds disappear when they are heated in a cupel-furnace, even in closed crucibles, but, continuing his experiments at the request of the Paris Academy, he, together with Rouelle, found that when heated in perfectly hermetically-sealed vessels, the diamond did not disappear. Macquer, in the year 1771, was the first to observe that when the diamond undergoes volatilization it appears to be surrounded by a flame. In conjunction with Cadet and Lavoisier, he afterwards found that a true combustion takes place. In continuation of these experiments Lavoisier, together with Macquer, Cadet, Brisson, and Baumé,¹ placed a diamond in a glass vessel containing air collected over mercury, and on igniting the diamond by means of a burning-glass, they found that carbonic acid gas was produced."—Roscoe and schor. Vol 1. pp. 658-59. ### [v1.c13.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.4) ¹ Lavoisier : Œuvres, tome ii. 38, 64. ### [v1.c13.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.5) Mr. T. H. Holland, F.G.S., A.R.S.M., of the Geological Survey of India, to whom was submitted the translation of the descriptions of the minerals (vide pp. 79-100), has favoured me with his opinion, which is reproduced below in his own words. It will, to a certain extent, help in the identification of the minerals. ### [v1.c13.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.6) "I have appended notes giving suggestions which may help to explain some of the passages, but the majority of descriptions are altogether too vague to permit identification of the minerals. The names of minerals already given are presumably recognised translations; for the descriptions accompanying the names might just as well, in many instances, apply to several minerals known in this country. ### [v1.c13.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.7) "Vaikrānta has 8 faces and 6 angles" &c., (p. 83) possibly refers to a mineral crystallizing in the octahedral form, and of the many minerals crystallizing in this form the family of spinels is more likely to exhibit the great range of colours given. ### [v1.c13.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.8) “White”—Unknown. ### [v1.c13.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.9) “Red”—Ruby spinel. ### [v1.c13.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.10) “Yellow”—Rubicelle (orange to yellow) : dysluite (yellowish brown). ### [v1.c13.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.11) “Blue”—Almandine (violet). ### [v1.c13.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.12) “Grass-green”—chlorospinel, hercynite (black when massive, green by transmitted light and in powder), pleonaste (dark-green) ; ### [v1.c13.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.13) “black”—magnetite, gahnite, franklinite &c. ; ### [v1.c13.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.14) “variegated”—some magnesia spinels ; ### [v1.c13.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.15) 8 Faces and 6 angels” might possibly also refer to the hexagonal prism with basal planes, a common form of corundum, which gives the variety of colours referred to even more perfectly than the spinels. ### [v1.c13.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.16) But the remarks on p. 104 as to the “liquefaction” of this mineral, cannot apply to either spinel or corundum. Unless there is some failure to appreciate the original meaning the statements are nonsensical. ### [v1.c13.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.17) Mākshikam (pyrites) . . . . Pyrites is of two kinds—golden and silvery; the former is a native of Kanauj, and is of golden yellow colour. The silvery pyrites is associated with stones and is of inferior quality." ### [v1.c13.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.18) Mākshika repeatedly steeped in \[organic substances\] and gently roasted in a crucible yields an essence of the appearance \[in the shape\] of copper'' (p. 84.) ### [v1.c13.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.19) Iron pyrites \[Fe S₂\] is brass-yellow in colour, and its dimorphous form marcasite is pale bronze-yellow; but there are other pyrite-like minerals which are silvery white; for instance, cobaltite (Co S₂. Co. As₂), smaltite (Co As₂), löllingite (Fe As₂ with S) and leucopyrite (Fe₃ As₄). Iron pyrites roasted in air would give a red residue of Fe₂ O₃. But it seems more likely that the "golden-yellow" variety is copper-pyrite, which has a deep yellow colour and besides which iron-pyrite when freshly fractured would appear almost silvery in colour. In that case the "essence of the appearance of copper" might be the metal itself.¹ ### [v1.c13.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.20) ¹ Vimala (pp. 84-85) would appear also to be a variety of pyrites. ### [v1.c13.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.21) "Sasyaka (blue vitriol) has the play of colours in the throat of the peacock." (p. 86.) ### [v1.c13.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.22) The experiments referred to might apply to any copper compound. There is a copper ore, bornite or erubescite (Cu₅ Fe S₄), which, on account of its peculiar colour and iridescence, is known as "peacock" ore. It occurs in several parts of India. ### [v1.c13.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.23) Gairika: hematite, which is red and often hard, and limonite which is yellow or brown, both occur in the form of ochres. ### [v1.c13.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.24) "Kamkushtham is produced at the foot of the Himālayas . . . it is of white and yellow colour and is a strong purgative." ### [v1.c13.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.25) Possibly an efflorescence of magnesium sulphate or sodium sulphate; both are not uncommon. The yellow colour might be due to admixture with ferruginous dirt due to oxidation of the ferrous sulphate produced by similar causes with the other sulphates. ### [v1.c13.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.26) Vajram: the remarks "8 faces and 6 corners" would be correct for an octahedral crystal of diamond; but I know of no crystal form which has at the same time "8 angles." The faces of the diamond are frequently rounded, which may account for the statements about the "female" and "neuter" diamonds. Many transparent minerals give a play of colours through either schillerization or refraction; but the diamond is of course particularly noticeable on account of its high dispersive power." ### [v1.c13.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.27) The following extracts from Ball's "Economic Geology of India" will also throw considerable light on this subject. It will be seen how in India the traditions of the technical arts of which we get vivid glimpses in the Rasārnava have been preserved even to our own days from time immemorial. ### [v1.c13.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.28) “Rājputanā—Copper ores are found in several of the independent States of Rājputanā, and also in the British district of Ajmīr. Mining has been practised on a large scale, but at present the trade of miner is becoming extinct and the operations, which are only carried on in a few of the localities, are of a very petty nature. ### [v1.c13.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.29) “The names of the States in which there are mines are as follows: Alwar, Bhartpur, Jaipur, Udepur, Bundi and Bikanir. ### [v1.c13.30](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.30) “Alwar State.—According to Mr. Hacket there are ancient copper mines at the following localities in this state: Daribo, Indawas, Bhangarh, Kusalgarh, Beghani, Pratabgarh, Tassing, and Jasingpura. The most important of this is the first. ### [v1.c13.31](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.31) “Deribo.—The mine is situated on a sharp anticlinal bend in a thin band of black slates intercalated in the Alwar quartzites. There appears to be no true lode; the one, which is pyrites mixed with arsenical iron, occurs irregularly disseminated through the black slates, a few specks and stains only being seen in the quartzites; occasionally rich nests of ore were met with . . . . . From an interesting account by Major Cadell, the following facts regarding the manufacture have been extracted. The ore, as usual in the native process, is pounded, made up into balls with cow-dung, roasted, and then smelted in a closed furnace and refined in an open charcoal fire. Thirty pounds of ore require four times that quantity of charcoal and yield 5½ pounds of metal, or 16.6 per cent. During the last 12 years the average annual outturn has been only 3 tons 8 cwts., and it is diminishing owing to the influx of European copper. ### [v1.c13.32](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.32) “Singhana (Jaipore State).—The copper mines at Singhana are situated in rocks belonging to the Arvali series. The earliest account of these mines, which is believed to have been by Captain Boilcan, was published in the year 1831. The principal productions were copper, blue vitriol or copper sulphate, alum, and an ore of cobalt called \*sehta\* or \*saita\*. ### [v1.c13.33](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.33) “The mines are described as being tortuous and of great extent; at the working faces it was the custom to light fires which caused the rock to split up. Lamps were used which the miners carried on their heads and with a gad and hammer extracted the ore. The principal ore found appears to have been pyrites. It was sold retail by auction to the proprietors of different furnaces. ### [v1.c13.34](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.34) "The pounding or crushing was effected on a stone anvil with a hammer weighing eight or ten seers; when completely reduced to powder the ore was made up into balls with cow-dung and roasted. The blast furnaces (vide illustrations) were prepared in the following manner. A quantity of common sand was spread on the floor of a circular hut, in the centre of which a depression, 12 to 15 inches in diameter and 2 or 3 inches deep, was made; in this a layer of fine sand and another of ashes were laid to prevent the metal from adhering to the bottom of the receiver; two clay nozzles or tuyères were then placed on opposite sides of this hollow and a third between them, leaving the fourth side vacant for the slag to escape. The nozzles were then connected by moist clay and a circular rim of mud, a few inches in height, was raised, on which three annular vessels of fire-clay were placed to form the body of the furnace, each of these was 15 inches in external diameter, 10 inches high, and 3 inches thick. They were used repeatedly, but the lower part of the furnace had to be reconstructed for every charge. The bellows were simply goat-skins connected with the nozzles, and were worked by the families of the smelters. After a preliminary firing, to dry the mud, the furnace was charged with charcoal, roasted ore and iron slag, the latter being employed as a flux. ### [v1.c13.35](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.35) "In a day of nine or ten hours' duration, 3 maunds of charcoal, 2½ of the roasted ore, and 2 of the iron slag were consumed. The slag was drawn off and the smelted copper which had accumulated at the bottom of the furnace was removed on the following day. It was then re-melted and refined in an open furnace under a strong blast from bellows, and cast into small bars or ingots, which were subsequently removed to the Mint and cut up and fashioned into coins. ### [v1.c13.36](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.36) "The ore was said to yield only from to 2½ to 7½ per cent. of metal, but the profits must have been not inconsiderable as the Khetrī Rājā is said to have claimed one-sixth of the value of the copper in addition to Rs. 14,000 received for the lease. The quality of the metal is said to have been inferior to that of Basawar, this being attributed to the use of the iron slag as a flux . . . . . . ### [v1.c13.37](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.37) . . . Considerable quantities of blue vitriol (copper sulphate), alum, and copperas (iron sulphate) are manufactured from the decomposed slate and refuse of the mines. The slates are steeped in water, which is afterwards evaporated in large iron vessels, when the blue vitriol, is crystallized out, afterwards the alum, and lastly the copperas. Mr. Mallet found traces of nickel and cobalt in all three of these substances. ### [v1.c13.38](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.38) "Copper smelting in the Singhbhum District (Bengal).—Indications exist of mining and smelting having been carried on in this region from a very early period, and the evidence available, points to the Seraks or lay Jains as being the persons who, perhaps 2,000 years ago, initiated the mining.¹ The number and extent of the ancient workings testify to the assiduity with which every sign of the presence of ore was exploited by these early pioneers and those who follow them up to recent times." ### [v1.c13.39](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.39) ¹ Proc. As. Soc. Bengal, June 1869, p. 170. ### [v1.c13.40](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.40) The Treatise on Alchemy attributed to Bubacar (10th to 11th century A. D.) also contains many similar descriptions of the gems and minerals; specially noticeable is the classification according to sex—male and female (cf. Bk. IV, 27-28, p. 100). We append below one or two short extracts. ### [v1.c13.41](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.41) "Viennent ensuite les treize genres de pierres, savoir: les marcassites, les magnésies, les tuties, l’azur (lapis lazuli ou cinabre ?), l’hématite, le gypse, etc., et toute une suite de minéraux désignés sous des noms arabes. Parmi les marcassites (sulfures), on distingue la blanche, pareille à l’argent ; la rouge ou cuivrée ; la noire, couleur de fer ; la dorée, etc. ### [v1.c13.42](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.42) “Les magnésies ¹ sont aussi de différente couleur, l’une noire, dont la cassure est cristalline, ² une autre ferrugineuse, etc. Une variété est dite mâle ; une autre, avec des yeux brillants, est appelée femelle ; c’ est la meilleure de toutes. ### [v1.c13.43](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.43) ¹ Ce mot désignait certains sulfures et oxydes métalliques, tels que les oxydes de fer magnétique, le bioxyde de manganèse, etc. ### [v1.c13.44](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.44) ² Offre des yeux brillants. ### [v1.c13.45](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.45) “Les tuties ³ sont de différentes couleurs : verte, jaune, blanche, etc.” ### [v1.c13.46](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.46) ³ Oxydes et minerais de zinc, renfermant du cuivre. ### [v1.c13.47](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.47) “La classe des vitriols (atramenta) comprend six espèces : celui qui sert à faire du noir, le blanc, le calcantum, le calcande, le calcathar, et le surianum. Il y en a un jaune, employé par les orfèvres ; un vert mêlé de terre, employé par les mégissiers, etc.”—“La Chimie au moyen âge,” T. I., 307. ### Alum and Green Vitriol ### [v1.c13.s1.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.1) Dutt speaking of alum states: "it is not mentioned by Susruta, in his list of metallics, but later writers give its synonyms and uses." This is evidently incorrect. Alum, with green vitriol, is distinctly referred to in the Susruta, \*e. g.\*: ### [v1.c13.s1.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.2) कासीसं त्रिवृतादली हरितालं सुराष्ट्रजा। ### [v1.c13.s1.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.3) Sūtra. xxxvi, 12. ### [v1.c13.s1.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.4) In the above sloka \*surāshtrajā\*, lit., begot of Surāshtra (modern Surat), is used in the sense of alum. From the ancient times the "earth of Surat" has been known to yield this mineral. Amara Simha in his Lexicon, written sometime between 400-600 A. D.,¹ gives among others the following synonyms of alum:—\*kāmkshī\*, \*tuvarī\* and \*surāshtrajā\*. "Rasaratnasamuchchya" also gives the same synonyms. (Bk. III., 59-62). The manufacture of alum survives to our own days, as the following description will show: ### [v1.c13.s1.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.5) ¹ The lowermost limit of his age may be taken about 948 A. D. as made out from an inscription in Budh Gaya. ### [v1.c13.s1.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.6) "Alum shales, so called, are of rare occurrence in peninsular India, and, so far as it known, the only considerable native manufacture is situated in Rājputana; but as will be gathered from what follows, the tertiary rocks of the extra-peninsular regions often contain such shales. ### [v1.c13.s1.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.7) “In two localities lumps of alum...occur naturally in sufficient abundance to be a regular article of export. ### [v1.c13.s1.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.8) “Alum is principally used as a mordant in dyeing, but as a drug its employment is extensive in India. ### [v1.c13.s1.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.9) “BEHAR.—Captain Sherwill in 1846¹ stated that a small quantity of alum was manufactured from slates obtained in the district of Shahabad; these rocks, it is believed, belonged to the Bijigrah pyritous shales of the Kaimur group of the Vindhyan series. ### [v1.c13.s1.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.10) ¹ Journ. As. Soc. XV., p. 58. ### [v1.c13.s1.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.11) “The alum was sold at the high price of one rupee per tola; it was identical with the salajit of Nepal. Copperas or iron sulphate is obtained in the same region, which is situated to the north of Rotasgarh, and to the west of the Sone. ### [v1.c13.s1.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.12) “Rājputana, Khetri, and Singhana.—In connection with the copper mines at the above localities there are manufactories which turn out considerable quantities of blue vitriol (copper sulphate), copperas (iron sulphate), and alum. The process has been very fully described and illustrated by Colonel Brooke. In 1864 there were twenty of these factories at Khetri and about double the number at Singhana. The broken shale from the mine which contains the salts is placed in earthen \*gharas\*, together with the crusts from the refuse heaps of previous lixiviations and water is added. The \*gharas\* are arranged on ledges prepared for the purpose on the heaps of refuse, as will be seen by reference to the wood-cut (\*vide illustrations\*). ### [v1.c13.s1.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.13) "Each charge of shale is exposed to three changes of water and the water itself is changed from one \*ghara\* to another till it has taken up the sulphates from seven different steepings. It is then of a thick dirty-bluish colour and is taken to the boiling house, where it is boiled in earthen \*gharas\*; when sufficiently concentrated it is left to cool, and thin sticks being introduced the blue vitriol crystallizes on them. The mother liquor is then poured off and again boiled, and on the addition of saltpetre, the alum crystallizes at the bottom of the vessel. The residual sulphates still in solution, are allowed to crystallize out by exposing the mixture to the sun. \* \* \* \* \* ### [v1.c13.s1.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.14) “CUTCH.—There are numerous accounts of the manufacture of alum in Cutch. The earliest is by Captain Mc Murdo, who states that before 1818 the exports of alum amounted in some years to several hundred thousand maunds, which chiefly went to Guzerat and Bombay to be employed in dyeing. The following account by Mr. Wynne is the most recent and complete. The site of the operations is at Mhurr or Madh. ### [v1.c13.s1.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.15) “The rock containing the materials is a pyritous dark-gray or black shale, which is in close association with a soft aluminous pseudo-breccia of the sub-nummulitic group. ### [v1.c13.s1.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.16) “This shale is excavated from pits and is exposed for four months, a slow combustion taking place owing to the decomposition of the pyrites. ### [v1.c13.s1.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.17) “It is then spread in squares resembling salt pans and sprinkled with water. After about 12 days it consolidates into efflorescing mammillated crystalline plates or crusts called \*phitkari-ka-bij\* or seed of alum. These crusts are boiled in large iron vessels (luted inside with lime), together with saltpetre (or other potash salt), in the proportion of 15 of ‘alum seed’ to 6 of the latter; when it has settled, the liquor is placed in small earthen vessels somewhat the shape of flower-pots, and crystallization takes place in three days. These crystals are again boiled one or more times to concentrate the solution, which is finally ladled into large thin bladder-shaped earthen \*mutkās\* or \*gharās\* with small mouth; these are sunk into the ground to prevent their breaking, and in five days the alum is found crystallized in masses. The vessels are then broken and the alum is stored. ### [v1.c13.s1.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.18) "Alum is also manufactured from the water of a hot spring north of Mhurr. The impure saltpetre, which is employed to supply the second base in the above-mentioned manner, is obtained by lixiviation of village refuse." (Ball's "Economic Geology", pp. 431-33). ### [v1.c13.s1.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.19) "IRON SULPHATE.—The green vitriol or copperas of commerce, which is known to the natives as \*kahi\* and \*hara kāsis\*, is produced principally from the so-called alum shales from which alum is prepared. As is the case also with alum, copperas is found sometimes as a natural exudation upon alum shales and other rocks which include iron pyrites. ### [v1.c13.s1.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.20) "This native copperas goes by several different names in India, according to the nature of the other substances with which it is combined. ### [v1.c13.s1.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.21) “BEHAR.—In the year 1833, Mr. J. Stevenson published an analysis of native sulphate of iron obtained from Behar, which was at that time used by the native dyers of Patna. ### [v1.c13.s1.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.22) He found that it consisted of— ### [v1.c13.s1.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13.s1.23) | Iron sulphate | . . . | 39·0 | | ,, peroxide | . . . | 36·0 | | Magnesia | . . . | 23·0 | | Loss | . . . | 2·0 | | | | —— | | \*ibid\* p. 419. | | 100·0 | ## Linked texts (4) - [Rasaratnasamuccaya](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.rasa.rasaratnasamuccaya.3.59) — Vāgbhaṭa (alchemist), Sanskrit - [Suśrutasaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.samhita.susruta) — Suśruta & Nāgārjuna (siddha/alchemist), Sanskrit - [Rasārṇava](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.rasa.siddha.rasarnava) — Sanskrit - [Tibetan translation ('Chi med mdzod)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.art.kosa.paryaya.amarakosa*bo) — Classical Tibetan --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c13) · Pramāṇa