[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Science, technology and education](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science) › [A History of Hindu Chemistry from the Earliest Times to the Middle of the Sixteenth Century A.D.](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902) › v1.c16 # A History of Hindu Chemistry from the Earliest Times to the Middle of the Sixteenth Century A.D. v1.c16: On Gunpowder, Saltpetre and the Mineral Acids A History of Hindu Chemistry from the Earliest Times to the Middle of the Sixteenth Century A.D. v1.c16 - **Language:** English ## Contents - [v1.c16.s1 Gunpowder](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1) — 45 parts - [v1.c16.s2 Saltpetre](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s2) — 8 parts - [v1.c16.s3 Mineral Acids](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s3) — 14 parts ### On Gunpowder, Saltpetre and the Mineral Acids ### [v1.c16.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.1) Gunpowder, Saltpetre ### [v1.c16.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.2) AND THE ### Gunpowder ### [v1.c16.s1.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.1) The ancient Hindus are sometimes credited with the knowledge of the art of manufacturing gunpowder, in support of which the several recipes given in the Sukranīti or the Elements of Polity of Sukrāchārya which we have already had occasion to quote, are cited. Take for example the following:— ### [v1.c16.s1.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.2) सुवर्चिलवणात् पञ्च पलानि गन्धकात् पलम् । अन्तर्धूमविपक्कार्कसुह्याद्यङ्गारतः पलम् ॥ 201 शुद्धात् संग्राह्य संचूर्ण्य सम्मोल्य प्रपुटेद्रसैः । सुह्यार्काणां रसोन्सय शोषयेदातपेन च । पिष्टा शर्करवच्च तदग्निचूर्ण भवेत् खलु ॥ 202 ### [v1.c16.s1.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.3) सुवर्चलवणक्षाराः षड्वा चत्वार एव वा । नालास्वार्थाग्निचूर्णं तु गन्धाक्षारौ तु पूर्व्ववत् ॥ 203 ### [v1.c16.s1.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.4) गोलो लोहमयो गर्भघटिकः केवलोऽपि वा । सौसस्य लघनालाथेंऽन्यधातुभनोऽपि वा ॥ 204 ### [v1.c16.s1.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.5) लोहसारमयं वापि नालास्त्रं त्वन्यधातुजम् । नित्यममार्जंनस्वच्छमस्त्रातिभरव्रतम् ॥ 205 ### [v1.c16.s1.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.6) अङ्गारस्यैव गन्धस्य सुवर्चलवणस्य च । शिलाया हरितालस्य तथा सीसमलस्य च ॥ 206 ### [v1.c16.s1.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.7) हिङ्गुलस्य तथा कान्तरजसः कर्पूरस्य च । जतोर्नील्याय सरलनिर्यासमथ तथैव च ॥ 207 ### [v1.c16.s1.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.8) समन्त्राधिकैः शरेरग्निचूर्णान्यनेकशः । कल्पयन्ति च तद्विद्यायन्त्रिकाभादिमन्ति च ॥ 208 ### [v1.c16.s1.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.9) क्षिपन्ति चाग्निधोगास्त्रं लक्ष्ये सुनालगम् ॥ 209 ### [v1.c16.s1.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.10) नालास्त्रं शोधयेदादौ दद्यात्तत्राग्निचूर्णकम् । निवेशयेत्तद्गडेन नालमूले यथा दृढम् ॥ 210 ### [v1.c16.s1.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.11) ततः सुगोलकं दद्यात् ततः कर्णेऽग्निचूर्णकम् । कर्णचूर्णाग्निदानेन गोलं लक्ष्ये निपातयेत् ॥ 211 ### [v1.c16.s1.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.12) (1) Ed. J. Vidyáságara, pp. 555-57. ### [v1.c16.s1.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.13) “Take five \*palas\* of saltpetre, one \*pala\* of sulphur and one \*pala\* of charcoal, prepared from the wood of \*Calotropis gigantea\* and \*Euphorbia neriifolia\* by destructive distillation¹; powder them and mix them intimately and macerate them in the juice of the above-named plants and of garlic and afterwards dry the mixture in the sun and pulverise it to the fineness of sugar. Gunpowder (lit. fire-powder) is thus obtained. 201-202 ### [v1.c16.s1.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.14) ¹ अन्तर्धूमविपक्क : lit., (wood) charred by smoke circulating through it. ### [v1.c16.s1.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.15) “If the fire-powder is to be used for a gun, six or four \*palas\* of saltpetre are to be taken, the proportion of charcoal and sulphur remaining the same as before. 203 ### [v1.c16.s1.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.16) “For a gun with a light barrel, balls of iron or of other metals are to be used. 204 ### [v1.c16.s1.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.17) “The gun made of iron or of other metals are to be constantly kept clean and bright by the skilful artillerymen. 205 ### [v1.c16.s1.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.18) By varying the proportions of the ingredients, \*viz.\*, charcoal, sulphur, saltpetre, realgar, orpiment, calx of lead, asafœtida, iron powder, camphor, lac, indigo and the resin of \*Shorea robusta\*, different kinds of fires are devised by the pyrotechnists giving forth flashes of starlight.” 206-208 ### [v1.c16.s1.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.19) From the circumstantial details given above, especially of the method of preparing the charcoal, one is naturally led to suspect that the lines relating to gunpowder as quoted above are later interpolations. The suspicion is further enhanced when it is borne in mind that in the Polity of Kāmandakī, an ancient work of undoubted authenticity, there occurs no reference whatever to firearms nor is there any in the Agnipurāna in which the subject of training in the use of arms and armours takes up four chapters, archery forming the leading element.¹ ### [v1.c16.s1.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.20) ¹ See Intro. to Dr. R. L. Mitra’s edition of Agnipurāna. ### [v1.c16.s1.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.21) The more rational conclusion would be that the Sukranīti is a patch work in which portions of chapter IV were added some time after the introduction of gunpowder in Indian warfare during the Moslem period.² Dr. G. Oppert, however, stands up for its antiquity. ### [v1.c16.s1.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.22) ² Dr. R. L. Mitra, judging from the description of guns alone, concludes this portion to be spurious;—vide Notices of Sanskrit Mss. Vol. V. p. 135. ### [v1.c16.s1.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.23) In Halhed’s “Code of Gentoo Laws,” there is a passage which is sometimes quoted as a proof that ### [v1.c16.s1.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.24) M. Berthelot’s concluding remarks on Marcus Græcus’ “Book of Fire” are equally applicable to Sukraniti :— ### [v1.c16.s1.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.25) the ancient Hindus knew the use of firearms. Halhed, not having an acquaintance with Sanskrit, had to depend on the Persian translation of the Sanskrit digest prepared by some learned pundits. We have been at some pains in finding out the original text which is generally credited to Manu. It is only by a forced interpretation that anything in Manu may be taken to refer to a projectile discharged from a gun.¹ ### [v1.c16.s1.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.26) ¹ The passage in Manu runs thus: ### [v1.c16.s1.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.27) " Mais je n'insiste pas, si ce n'est pour rappeler comment ces additions manifestent le caractère véritable de la composition de ces manuscrit et livres de recettes, déjà répandus dans l'antiquité et dont lis formules sont venues jusqu'au XVIIIe siècle, parfois même jusqu'à notre temps. Le \*Liber ignium\* en est un exemple, et l'analyse précédente montre bien comme il a été composé avec des matériaux de dates multiples, les uns remontant à l'antiquité, les autres ajoutés à diverses époques, dont les dernières étaient contemporaines, ou très voisines de celle de la transcription de chaque manuscrit." "La Chimie au moyen âge" T. I.135. ### [v1.c16.s1.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.28) (1) The passage in Manu runs thus: ### [v1.c16.s1.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.29) न कूटायुधैर्न्याद् युध्यमानो रणे रिपून् । न कर्णिभिर्नापि दिग्धैर्नाग्निज्वलिततेजनैः ॥ मनु, VII.90 ### [v1.c16.s1.30](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.30) We give below the commentaries of Medhātithi and Kullūka Bhatta :— ### [v1.c16.s1.31](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.31) In Sanskrit literature, there are frequent but vague references to ‘agni astra” or firearms, but we have no reason to suppose that the combustible matter these fire arms contained supplied a motive power of the nature of gunpowder. The fire missiles were probably of the same category as the ### [v1.c16.s1.32](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.32) कूटानि यानि वह्निःकाष्ठमानि अन्तर्निशितशस्त्राणि । कार्ण्यः शराः, ये शल्यस्य मूले मध्ये वा कर्ण्याकारैः क्रियन्ते । ते हि प्रविष्टा दुरुद्धरा भवन्ति, प्रहारैरभिन्नमपि शरीरं मद्रेगं भिन्दन्ति । दिग्धाविषोपलिप्ताः । अग्ना ज्वलतमादीपितं तेजोमयफलकं येषा, एतैर्नयोद्धव्यम् । इति मेधातिथिः । ### [v1.c16.s1.33](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.33) कूटान्यायुधानि वह्निः काष्ठादिमयानि, अन्तर्गढनिशितशस्त्राणि तैः समरे युध्यमानः शत्रून् न हन्यात् ; नापि कर्ण्याकारफलकैरनापि विषाक्तैर्नाप्यग्निप्रदीप्तफलकैरित्यर्थः । इति कुल्लूकभट्टः । ### [v1.c16.s1.34](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.34) The correct rendering should be as follows :—" The king sha not slay his enemies in warfare with deceitful or barbed or poisoned weapons, nor with any having a blade made red hot by fire or tipped with burning materials"; Bühler, who also follows the above commentators, thus translates : "when he (the king) fights with his foes in battle, let him not strike with weapons concealed (in wood), nor with (such as are) barbed, poisoned, or the points of which are blazing with fire." Whereas Halhed's version is : "the magistrate shall not make war with any deceitful machine or with poisoned weapons or with cannon and guns or with any other kind of firearms." ### [v1.c16.s1.35](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.35) ‘Greek fire,’ \*i.e.\* arrows or darts tipped with oiled flax, resin, regalar, naptha or other bituminous substances discharged from bows; sometimes elaborate machines being devised to hurl the weapons with more deadly effect. In the Udyogaparava of the Mahābhārata, Yudhisthira is described as “collecting large quantities of resin, tow, and other inflammable articles for his great fratricidal war.” ¹ But there is nothing to show that gunpowder of any sort was in use or any chemical which would act as a propelling agent. ² ### [v1.c16.s1.36](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.36) ¹ See Dr. Mitra’s “Antiquities of Orissa,” I.121. ### [v1.c16.s1.37](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.37) ² In the 11th century, Kásmír remained safe behind its mountain ramparts and was hermetically sealed to all foreigners with out exception. Here, according to Albírúni, Hindu sciences retired and took shelter when the Mohammedan invasion of India began. But in the indigenous mode of warfare no reference to gunpowder is to be found; thus we read in Kalhana’s Rajatarañginì that in 1090 A. D. “he (Kandarpa) threw into the mêlée burning arrows smeared over with vegetable oil, struck by which the enemies caught fire. Believing that he knew \[the use of\] the weapon of fire (\*agneya astra\*), they became frightened and fled in bewilderment, cursing their return.” Stein’s Trans. Vol. I. p. 344. ### [v1.c16.s1.38](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.38) The mention of gunpowder and of some sort of explosives with identical formularies occurs almost simultaneously in the Latin redaction of the work on “Fire” by Marcus Græcus and in the writings of Roger Bacon about the 13th century.¹ Greek fire was introduced into Constantinople from the East abuot the year 673 and the Byzantines evidently knew that saltpetre was its basis; but they kept this knowledge strictly a secret, and abstained from speaking of it by any distinct name lest the information might leak out. Thus the very word saltpetre ### [v1.c16.s1.39](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.39) The original passage is ### [v1.c16.s1.40](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.40) ततस्तान् नाराचान् निक्षिपेत् स संयुगे । लिप्तानौषधितैलेन विद्धा यैः प्राज्वलन् दिशः ॥ आग्नेयं वेत्यसावस्त्रमिति मूर्खा विशङ्किताः । ते दूरं प्रययुर्भीता निन्दन्तः पुन रागमम् । VII. 983, 989. ### [v1.c16.s1.41](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.41) For further references to similar fire-missiles see Mahánátaka or Hanumána Nátaka in Wilson's “Hindu Theatre,” Vol. II. ed. 1835, appendix, pp. 369-70. ### [v1.c16.s1.42](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.42) The first record of the use of cannon and gunpowder in Indian warfare is in the memoirs of Baber. In 1528 he forced the passage of the Ganges near Kanauj with the aid of artillery. For much valuable information on the subject of the early Asiatic fire-weapons the reader may consult an exhaustive article by Maj. Gen. R. Maclagan in the “Journ. As. Soc., Bengal,” Vol. XLV. pp. 30 ff. ### [v1.c16.s1.43](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.43) (1) ‘La Chimie au moyen” âge, I. p. 94. ### [v1.c16.s1.44](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.44) is conspicuous by its absence in the literature of the ancients. Niturm (natron) was all along exclusively applied to carbonate of soda.¹ ### [v1.c16.s1.45](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s1.45) ¹ Cf. “C’est par erreur que la plupart des éditeurs des auteurs grecs ou latins traduisent ces mots par nitre ou salpêtre, substance presque inconnue dans l’antiquité, et que apparaît seulement à partir du VI e siècle à Constantinople, avec le feu grégeois dont elle était la base. Les anciens parlent aussi du nitrum factice, préparé avec es cendres de chêne, c’est-à-dire du carbonate de potasse.”—“Intro la l’étude de la Chimie,” p. 263. ### Saltpetre ### [v1.c16.s2.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s2.1) It will thus be seen that there is much in common in the history of the word used for nitrate of potash both in the Sanskrit and in the Latin languages, as in theformer “sauvarchala” and “yavakshāra” are indiscriminately applied to it. ### [v1.c16.s2.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s2.2) It is very remarkable that in the later Sanskrit chemico-medical literature the very word sauvarchala, which stands for saltpetre in the Sukranīti and in the Rasārnava, ceases altogether to be applied to it, but is used as a synonym of sārjikā (natron), while yavakshāra has been pressed into service, it being clean forgotten that from the time of Charaka and Susruta this word has been used in its radical sense, \*viz.\*, the \*ashes of barley\* (impure carbonate of potash, from \*yava\*, barley and \*kshāra\*, ashes). Both Wilson and Monier Williams in their Sanskrit-English Dictionaries, following no doubt the authority of modern writers, erroneously render \*yavakhāra\* as saltpetre as also does Colebrooke in his "Amarakosha". Roth and Böhtlingk in their Wörterbuch, however, correctly translate it as "Aetzkali, ous der Asche von Gerstenstroh."¹ ### [v1.c16.s2.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s2.3) ¹ In the chemistry of Bubacar, "le sel de cendres" is the equivalent of \*yavakshāra\*—"La Chimie au moyen âge," I. 308. ### [v1.c16.s2.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s2.4) It is strange indeed that a substance which occurs extensively in Bengal and in upper India as an efflorescence on the soil should have been allowed to go without a definite name for several centuries.² Dutt says "nitre was unknown to the ancient Hindus. There is no recognised name for it in Sanskrit."³ \* \* \* Some recent Sanskrit formulas for the preparation of mineral acids containing nitre mention this salt under the name of “soraka”. This word, however, is not met with in any Sanskrit dictionary and is evidently sanskritized from the vernacular sorā, a term of foreign origin. The manufacture of nitre was therefore most probably introduced into India after the adoption of gunpowder as an implement of warfare.” ¹ Mat. Med. of the Hindus, pp. 89-90, ed. 1900. ### [v1.c16.s2.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s2.5) ² We purposely use the words "allowed to go without a definite name," for the term \*sauvarchala\* was all along vaguely used now for saltpetre, now for natron. ### [v1.c16.s2.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s2.6) ³ He is in error on this point, as he had not consulted, or probably had no acquaintance with, the old literature on the subject. Prof. Macdonell very properly points out "the dangers of the \*argumentum ex silentio\* \[as\] furnished by the fact that salt, the most necessary of minerals, is never once mentioned in the Rig- ### [v1.c16.s2.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s2.7) veda. And yet the northern Panjáb is the very part of India where it most abounds. It occurs in the salt range between the Indus and the Jhelum in such quantities that the Greek companions of Alexander according to Strabo, asserted the supply to be sufficient for the wants of the whole of India.” It would be equally hazardous to rush to the conclusion that nitre was “unknown” to the Hindus. ### [v1.c16.s2.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s2.8) (1) Dutt is probably correct in so far as he states his views with regard to “the manufacture of nitre” as an ingredient of gunpowder. For it is well known saltpetre has been in use from time immemorial as the basis of rocket and other fireworks both in China and India. In the Dasakumáracharita by Dandí, mention is made of yogavartiká (magic wick) and yagachùrna (magic powder), of which saltpetre was probably the basis. The earliest account of the manufacture of saltpetre on a commercial scale that we have come across occurs in a rare work entitled: “The Travels of John Albert de Mandelso from Persia into the East Indies. London, 1669.” The book is in the valuable collection of my friend, Mr. Prithvísa Chandra Ráya. Says our author:— ### Mineral Acids ### [v1.c16.s3.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s3.1) Geber was up till recently credited with being the discoverer of nitric acid, aqua regia, silver nitrate &c. A careful examination of the works of Geber, both real and pretended, notably of the celebrated \*Summa perfectionis magisterii\*, has convinced M. Berthelot that the knowledge of the mineral acids was unknown not only to the Arabs but also to the European alchemists of the thirteenth century. It was a Latin author of the latter half of the 13th century who wrote the above memorable work and assumed the ### [v1.c16.s3.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s3.2) "Most of the saltpeter which is sold in \*Guzuratta\* comes from Ajmer, sixty Leagues from Agra, and they get it out of Land that hath lain long fallow. The blackest and fattest ground yields most of it, though other Lands afford some, and it is made thus : they make certain trenches which they fill with their Saltpetrous Earth, and let into them small Rivulets, as much water as will serve for its soaking, which may be the more effectually done, they make use of their feet, treading it till it becomes a Broath. When the Water hath drawn out all the salt-peter which was in the Earth, they take the clearest part of it, and dispose it into another Trench, where it grows thick, and then they boil it like salt, continually scumming it, and then they put it into earthen pots, wherein the remainder of the Dregs goes to the bottom ; and when the water begins to thicken, they take it out of these pots, to set it a-drying in the sun, where it grows hard, and is reduced into that form wherein it is brought into \*Europe\*." pp. 66-67. ### [v1.c16.s3.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s3.3) venerable name of Geber to gain public confidence.¹ Such instances of literary forgery are by no means uncommon in the alchemical literature of the East and the West. ### [v1.c16.s3.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s3.4) ¹ "L'hypothèse la plus vraisemblable à mes yeux, c'est qu'un auteur latin, resté inconnu, a écrit ce livre dans la seconde moitié du XIIIe. siècle, et l'a mis sous le patronage du nom vénéré de Géber." "La Chimie au moyen âge," I. 349. ### [v1.c16.s3.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s3.5) The distillation of alum is referred to in Rasārnava and of green vitriol in R.R.S. (see pp. 71, 92) We have, however, no evidence that the acid thus derived was ever used as a solvent. Hoefer justly remarks that real progress in chemistry was impossible in India and China, as the preparation of mineral acids was unknown in both these countries.² At the same time we should remember that Rasārnava and similar other works lay stress upon vida, in which aqua regia may be said to be potentially present and which is fitly described as capable of "killing all the metals" (see p. 72) ### [v1.c16.s3.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s3.6) ² "Hist. de la Chimie," T. I. p. 25, ed. 1866. ### [v1.c16.s3.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s3.7) The preparation of mineral acids is incidentally described in several exclusively medical works, composed probably in the 16th and 17th centuries, e. g. "Rasakaumudī" by Mādhava, Rasaratnapradīpa, and "Bhaishajyaratnāvalī" by Govindadāsa, &c. In the last work under the heading of mahādrāvakarasa, directions are given for distilling a mixture of, among other things, alum, green vitriol, salammoniac saltpetre and borax in a glass retort. In this way a dilute solution of nitro-muriatic acid is obtained, which is prescribed in derangement of liver and spleen. We have a similar recipe in which in addition to the above ingredients, rock-salt and sea-salt are used, thus yielding what is called “samkhadrāvaka” (lit. solvent for conch-shell.) ### [v1.c16.s3.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s3.8) The term “drāvaka” (solvent) seems to have been expressly coined to do duty for the mineral acids. We have seen all along that in the older works drāvaka was used invariably in the sense of solvent or flux (see p. 130) but never in the sense of a mineral acid, the knowledge of which seems to have spread both in the East and the West almost simultaneously. The regular application of the mineral acids to technical operations dates from the time of the Emperor Akbar or perhaps a little earlier. Thus in the \*A'in-i-A'kbari\* under the “Method of Refining Silver” mention is made of the use of \*rasi\* (aqua fortis). It is not easy to make out how much of the processes of the assay of gold and silver as described in the \*A'in\* is of Hindu origin. ### [v1.c16.s3.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s3.9) Royle, Sir W. O'Shaughnessy (“Manual of Chemistry’), Ainslie and others maintained that the Hindus were acquainted with the methods of preparing the mineral acids. These authors who wrote more than half-a-century ago derived their information at second-hand as none of them had probably read the Sankrit works in the original. Ainslie gives the following recipes as used in Southern India among the Tamil physicians for the preparation of sulphuric, nitric and muriatic acids respectively: ### [v1.c16.s3.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s3.10) Sulphuric acid: “The Tamil physicians prepared their article nearly in the same way that we do, \*viz.\*, by burning sulphur with a small with a small piece of nitre in strong earthen vessels.” ### [v1.c16.s3.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s3.11) O’Shaughnessy says: “sulphuric acid, the \*Gun-dak ká áttar\* of the Hindus has long been known among the Eastern nations. In southern India it has been prepared for many centuries.” ### [v1.c16.s3.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s3.12) Nitric acid: This acid the Hindus make a clumsy attempt at preparing in the following manner which must not be rigidly criticised by the chemists of Europe. ### [v1.c16.s3.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s3.13) Take of saltpetre . . . 20 parts. ,, alum . . . 16 ,, ,, the acid liquid from the leaves and stem of the Bengal horsegram . . . 18 ,, Mix and distil with an increasing heat till the whole of the acid is condensed in a receiver. Muriatic acid : "Take of common salt ,, 8 parts alum ,, 6 parts The acid liquid from the horse gram and distil &c." ### [v1.c16.s3.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16.s3.14) The very name of sulphuric acid, \*Gundak ká áttar\* is Urdu \*i.e.\* the hybird \*lingua franca\*, an admixture of Hindi with Persian. \*Attar\* in Persian means the volatile princinple, often odoriferous, \*e.g.\* \*Guláb ká áttar\* \*i.e.\* otto de Rose. "Gundhak" in Sanskrit is the equivalent for sulphur. ## Linked texts (16) - [Rājataraṅgiṇī](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.historical.kashmir.rajatarangini.7.983) — Kalhaṇa, Sanskrit - [Mānava Dharmaśāstra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.dharma.manu.7.90) — Manu & Bhṛgu, Sanskrit - [Agnipurāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.purana.agni) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Carakasaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.samhita.caraka) — Agniveśa (Āyurveda) & Caraka, Sanskrit - [Suśrutasaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.samhita.susruta) — Suśruta & Nāgārjuna (siddha/alchemist), Sanskrit - [Rasaratnasamuccaya](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.rasa.rasaratnasamuccaya) — Vāgbhaṭa (alchemist), Sanskrit - [Mahānāṭaka](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.plays.rama.mahanataka) — Hanumān, Sanskrit - [Rasārṇava](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.rasa.siddha.rasarnava) — Sanskrit - [Daśakumāracarita](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.novels.prasiddha.dasakumaracarita) — Daṇḍin, Sanskrit - [Tibetan translation ('Chi med mdzod)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.art.kosa.paryaya.amarakosa*bo) — Classical Tibetan - [Bhaiṣajyaratnāvalī](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.cikitsa.gauda.bhaisajyaratnavali) — Govindadāsa, Sanskrit - [Mahābhārata](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.mahabharata.vyasa) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Ṛgvedasaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.samhita.rg) — Sanskrit - [Rasakaumudī (Śrīkaṇtha Dīkṣita)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.rasa.rasakaumudi) — Śrīkaṇtha Dīkṣita 1600, Sanskrit - [Kāmandakīya Nītisāra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.artha.kamandaka_nitisara) — Kāmandaki, Sanskrit - [Rasaratnadīpikā (Allarāja)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.art.alamkara.rasa.rasaratnadipika-allaraja) — Allarāja, Sanskrit --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c16) · Pramāṇa