[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Science, technology and education](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science) › [A History of Hindu Chemistry from the Earliest Times to the Middle of the Sixteenth Century A.D.](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902) › v1.c17 # A History of Hindu Chemistry from the Earliest Times to the Middle of the Sixteenth Century A.D. v1.c17: Knowledge of Technical Arts and Decline of Scientific Spirit A History of Hindu Chemistry from the Earliest Times to the Middle of the Sixteenth Century A.D. v1.c17 - **Language:** English ### Knowledge of Technical Arts and Decline of Scientific Spirit ### [v1.c17.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.1) AND ### [v1.c17.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.3) In ancient India the useful arts and sciences, as distinguished from mere handicrafts, were cultivated by the higher classes. In the White Yajur-Veda and in the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa, we meet with the names of various professions which throw light on the state of society of that period; unfortunately a knowledge of these perished with the institution of the caste system in its most rigid form.¹ Among the sixty-four “kalās” or arts and sciences which are enumerated in the old work of Vātsāyana² called Kāmasūtra occur the names of the following: ### [v1.c17.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.4) ¹ See Dutt's “Civilization in Ancient India,” pp. 155-157, Calcutta ed. ### [v1.c17.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.5) ² “Vātsāyana is another old authority…………….The name occurs in Pánini 4. 1. 73. and probably the author of the Kāmasutras was meant as some of his rules refer to terms chiefly used in the latter. The text has come down to us almost undefiled, showing its great popularity among our ancestors, which is also clear from its commentaries and reference by Dandí, Vámana and other great writers.”—Preface to Barua's “Amarakosha,” preface, xiii. ### [v1.c17.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.6) सुवर्णरत्नपरीक्षा :—or the examination and valuation of gold and gems. ### [v1.c17.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.7) धातुवादः or chemistry and metallurgy. ### [v1.c17.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.8) मणिरागाकरज्ञानम् :—or knowledge of the colouring of gems and jewels, as also of mines and quarries. ### [v1.c17.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.9) In the Sukranītisāra or the Elements of Polity by Sukrāchārya, we also read an account of the various “kalās” : \*e.g.\* ### [v1.c17.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.10) पाषाणधात्वादिदहतिस्तद्भस्मीकरणं कला :—"the art of piercing and incinerating the stones and the metals is known as a “kalā.” ### [v1.c17.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.11) धात्योषधीनां संयोगक्रियाज्ञानं कला स्मृता :—"a knowledge of the combinations of the metals and the herbs and the plants is also regarded as a “kalā.” ### [v1.c17.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.12) धातुसाङ्कर्यपार्थक्यकरणन्तु कला स्मृता । संयोगापूर्वविज्ञानं धात्वादीनां कला स्मृता ॥ ### [v1.c17.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.13) "The art of alloying and separating the metals is also known as a “kalā.” ### [v1.c17.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.14) क्षारनिष्कासनज्ञानं कलासंज्ञन्तु तत् स्मृतम् । कलादशमेतद्धि ह्यायुर्वेदामेष च ॥ ### [v1.c17.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.15) "The art of extracting alkali (see pp. 31-38 under Susruta) is likewise counted as a “kalā”. In the science of Āyurveda, there are altogether ten “kalās” ### [v1.c17.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.16) We also find that among the companions of the poet Vāna were an assayer and a metallurgist.¹ Such terms as "lohavid" and "dhātuvid" which occur repeatedly in Sanskrit literature show that the metallurgists were held in high esteem and expert knowledge sought after. ### [v1.c17.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.17) ¹ Cowell and Thoma's Trans. of Harsha-charita, p. 33. ### [v1.c17.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.18) The art of dyeing was carried almost to perfection, the fast colours resembling the Tyrean purple. ### [v1.c17.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.19) In the Vedic age the Rishis or priests did not form an exclusive caste of their own but followed different professions according to their convenience or natural tastes, thus fulfilling the ideal laid down by Emerson: "Has he (man) not a calling in his character? Each man has his own vocation. The talent is the call." But all this was changed when the Brāhmins reässerted their supremacy on the decline or the expulsion of Buddhism. ### [v1.c17.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.20) The caste system was established \*de novo\* in a more rigid form. The drift of Manu and of the later Purānas is in the direction of glorifying the priestly class, which set up most arrogant and outrageous pretensions. According to Susruta, the dissection of dead bodies is a \*sine qua non\* to the student of surgery and this high authority lays parcular stress on knowledge gained from experiment and observation.¹ But Manu would have none of it. The very touch of a corpse, according to Manu, is enough to bring contamination to the sacred person of Brāhmin.² Thus we find that shortly after the time of Vāgbhata, the handling of a lancet was discouraged and Anatomy and Surgery fell into disuse and became to all intents and purposes lost sciences to the Hindus. It was considered equally undignified to sweat away at the forge like a Cyclops. Hence the cultivation of the \*kalās\* by the more refined classes of the society of which we get such vivid pictures in the ancient Sanskrit literature ### [v1.c17.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.21) ¹ त्वक्पर्यन्तस्य देहस्य योऽयमङ्गविनिश्चयः । शल्यज्ञानादृते नैष वर्ण्यतेऽङ्गेषु केषुचित् ॥ तस्मान्निःशयं ज्ञानं हत्वा शल्यस्य वाञ्छता । शोधयित्वा मृतं सम्यग् द्रष्टव्योऽङ्गविनिश्चयः ॥ प्रत्यक्षतो हि यद्दृष्टं शास्त्रदृष्टं च यद्भवेत् । समासतस्तदुभयं भूयो ज्ञानविवर्द्धनम् ॥ 43-45 ### [v1.c17.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.22) ² The "Laws of Manu," V. 64,85,87. ### [v1.c17.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.23) (1) त्वक्पर्यन्तस्य देहस्य योऽयमङ्गविनिश्चयः । शल्यज्ञानादृते नैष वर्ण्यतेऽङ्गेषु केषुचित् ॥ तस्मान्निःशयं ज्ञानं हत्वा शल्यस्य वाञ्छता । शोधयित्वा मृतं सम्यग् द्रष्टव्योऽङ्गविनिश्चयः ॥ प्रत्यक्षतो हि यद्दृष्टं शास्त्रदृष्टं च यद्भवेत् । समासतस्तदुभयं भूयो ज्ञानविवर्द्धनम् ॥ 43-45 ### [v1.c17.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.24) शरीरे चैव शास्त्रे च दृष्टार्थः स्याद्विशारदः । दृष्टश्रुताभ्यां सन्देहमापोहाचरेत् क्रियाः ॥ 48 Sáríra. Ch. V. ### [v1.c17.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.25) has survived only in traditions since a very long time past.¹ ### [v1.c17.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.26) (1) Similar dangers have theartened Europe from time to time but her sturdy sons have proved better of them in the long run. Thus "Aristotle's opinion that 'industrial work tends to lower the standard of thought' was certainly of influence here. In accordance with this dictum the educated Greeks held aloof from the observation and practice of technical chemical processes; a theoretical explanation of the reactions involved in these lay outside their circle of interest."—Meyer's "Hist. of Chemistry," trans. by McGowan, p. 10, ed. 1898. ### [v1.c17.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.27) Paracelsus flings a sneer at the physicians of his time and compares them with the alchemists in the following terms: "For they are not given to idleness nor go in a proud habit, or plush and velvet garments, often showing their rings upon their fingers or wearing swords with silver hilts by their sides, or fine and gay gloves upon their hands, but diligently follow their labours, sweating whole days and nights by their furnaces. They do not spend their time abroad for recreations but take delight in their laboratory. They wear leather garments with a pouch, and an apron wherewith they wipe their hands. They put their fingers amongst coals, into clay, and filth, not into gold rings. They are sooty and black like smiths and colliers, and do not pride themselves upon clean and beautiful faces."—Quoted by Rodwell in his "Birth of Chemistry." ### [v1.c17.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.28) Even so late as the middle of the last century, the pursuit of Chemistry in England was not regarded in a serious light and "chemists were ashamed to call themselves so" because the apothecaries had appropriated the name"—a circumstance which led Liebig in 1837 to declare "that England was not the land of science." ### [v1.c17.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.29) The arts being thus relegated to the low castes and the professions made hereditary, a certain degree of fineness, delicacy and deftness in manipulation was no doubt secured but this was done at a terrible cost. The intellectual portion of the community being thus withdrawn from active participation in the arts, the \*how\* and \*why\* of phenomena—the coördination of cause and effect—were lost sight of—the spirit of enquiry gradually died out among a nation naturally prone to speculation and metaphysical subtleties and India for once bade adieu to experimental and inductive sciences.¹ Her soil was rendered morally unfit for the birth of a Boyle, a Des Cartes or a Newton and her very name was ### [v1.c17.30](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.30) ¹ The Vadánta philosophy, as modified and expanded by Samkara, which teaches the unreality of the material world, is also to a large extent responsible for bringing the study of physcial science into disrepute. Samkara is unsparing in his strictures on Kanáda and his system. One or two extract from Samkara's Commentary on the Vedánta Sútras, will make the point clear : ### [v1.c17.31](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.31) (1) The Vadánta philosophy, as modified and expanded by Samkara, which teaches the unreality of the material world, is also to a large extent responsible for bringing the study of physcial science into disrepute. Samkara is unsparing in his strictures on Kanáda and his system. One or two extract from Samkara's Commentary on the Vedánta Sútras, will make the point clear : ### [v1.c17.32](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.32) “तस्मादेवमसारतर्कसंष्टम्भत्वात्, ईश्वरकारणश्रुतिविरुद्धत्वात्, श्रुतिप्रवक्त्रृशिष्टैर्मन्वादिभिरपरिगृहीतत्वात्, अत्यन्तमेवानपेक्षमस्मिन् परमाणुकारणवादे कार्य्यद्रव्यैः श्रेयोऽर्थिभिरिति वाक्यशेषः । २।२।१७ सूत्रभाष्यम् । वैशेषिकराद्धान्तो दुर्युत्तियोगाद् वेदविरोधात्, शिष्टपरिग्रहाच्च नापरीक्षतव्य इत्युक्तं; सोऽप्यैवैनाशिक इति वैनाशिकत्वसाम्यात् सर्व्ववैनाशिक-राद्धान्तो नितरामनपेक्षितव्य इतीदं इदानीं उपपादयामः । २।२।१८ सूत्रभाष्यम् । “Vedánta Darsana,” Bombay ed. ### [v1.c17.33](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.33) “तस्मादेवमसारतर्कसंष्टम्भत्वात्, ईश्वरकारणश्रुतिविरुद्धत्वात्, श्रुतिप्रवक्त्रृशिष्टैर्मन्वादिभिरपरिगृहीतत्वात्, अत्यन्तमेवानपेक्षमस्मिन् परमाणुकारणवादे कार्य्यद्रव्यैः श्रेयोऽर्थिभिरिति वाक्यशेषः । २।२।१७ सूत्रभाष्यम् । वैशेषिकराद्धान्तो दुर्युत्तियोगाद् वेदविरोधात्, शिष्टपरिग्रहाच्च नापरीक्षतव्य इत्युक्तं; सोऽप्यैवैनाशिक इति वैनाशिकत्वसाम्यात् सर्व्ववैनाशिक-राद्धान्तो नितरामनपेक्षितव्य इतीदं इदानीं उपपादयामः । २।२।१८ सूत्रभाष्यम् । “Vedánta Darsana,” Bombay ed. ### [v1.c17.34](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.34) all but expunged from the map of the scientific world.¹ ### [v1.c17.35](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.35) In this land of intellectual torpor and stagnation the artizan classes, left very much to themselves and guided solely by their mother wit and sound commonsense, which is their only heritage in this ### [v1.c17.36](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.36) "It thus appears that the atomic doctrine is supposed by very weak arguments only, is opposed to those scriptural passages which declare the Lord to be the general cause, and is not accepted by any of the authorities taking their stand on scripture, sush as Manu and others. Hence it is to be altogether disregarded by high-minded men who have a regard for their own spiritual welfare." II. 2, 17 ### [v1.c17.37](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.37) "The reasons on account of which the doctrine of the Vaiseshikas cannot be accepted have been stated above. That doctrine may be called semi-destructive (or semi-nihilistic)." Thibaut's trans., \*Ibid.\* 18. ### [v1.c17.38](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.38) (1) Among a people ridden by caste and hide-bound by the authorities and injunctions of the Vedas, Puranas, and Smiritis and having their intellect thus cramped and paralysed, no Boyle could arise to lay down such sound principles for guidance as : ### [v1.c17.39](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.39) P. XXVI." . . . I saw that several chymists had, by a laudable diligence obtian'd various productions, hit upon many more phenomena, considerable in their kind, than could well be expected from their narrow principles : but finding the generality of those addicted to chymistry, to have had scarce any view, but to the preparation of medicines, or to the improving of metals, I was tempted to consider the art, not as a physician or an alchymist, but a philosopher. And, with this view, I once drew up a scheme world, have kept up the old traditions.¹ In their own way they display marvellous skill in damescening, making ornamental designs on metals, carving on ivory, enamelling, weaving, dyeing lace-making, goldsmith's and jeweller's works, etc.² ### [v1.c17.40](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.40) ¹ Vide manufacture of alum, pp. 147-51. ### [v1.c17.41](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.41) ² For detailed information on some of these branches the reader may consult Birdwood s Industrial "Arts of India". ### [v1.c17.42](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.42) The successive stages in the manipulation of one branch of the arts have been carefully watched by Mr. Jñānasarana Chakravartī M. A., late Scholar, Presidency College, and his experiences embodied in a paper, which, for the most part, is reproduced below with certain alterations; it is of singular interest as a contribution to the history of the Indian technical arts. It now remains only to add that some of the processes described below were in ### [v1.c17.43](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.43) for a chymical philosophy; which I shou'd be glad that any experiments or observations of mine might any way contribute to complete.' ### [v1.c17.44](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.44) P. XVIII. '. . . And, truly, if men were willing to regard the advancement of philosophy, more than their own reputations, it were easy to make them sensible, that one of the most considerable sevices they could do the world is, to set themselves diligently to make experiments, and collect observations, without attempting to establish theories upon them, before they have taken notice of all the phenomena that are to be solved." Shaw's ed. of Boyle's works, 3 vols. 1725. ### [v1.c17.45](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.45) vogue at the time of the Emperor Akbar and probably existed long before, as Rasārnava amply testifies (p. 68). The very terms "poonoor" (pun-hār) and "Neharwalla" (Niāriyah) occur in the descriptions of the assay of gold in Āin-i-Akbari.¹ ### [v1.c17.46](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17.46) ¹ Along with Mr. Chakravartí's Essay should be read Āins 7, 8 and 9 "on the Manner of Refining Gold," "the Method of Refining Silver" "and the Method of Separating the Silver from the Gold," Blochmann's trans. Vol. I. pp. 20-25. ## Linked texts (11) - [Brahmasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.darsana.vedanta.brahmasutra.2.2.17) — Bādarāyaṇa, Sanskrit - [Aṣṭādhyāyī](https://indike.org/pramana/in.vedanga.vyakarana.astadhyayi.4.1.73) — Pāṇini, Sanskrit - [Mānava Dharmaśāstra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.dharma.manu.5.64) — Manu & Bhṛgu, Sanskrit - [Suśrutasaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.samhita.susruta) — Suśruta & Nāgārjuna (siddha/alchemist), Sanskrit - [Taittirīyabrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.taittiriya) — Sanskrit - [Rasārṇava](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.rasa.siddha.rasarnava) — Sanskrit - [Veda](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda) — Sanskrit - [Kāmasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.kama.vatsyayana) — Vātsyāyana Mallanāga, Sanskrit - [Purāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.purana) — Sanskrit - [Kaṇvasmṛti](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.dharma.uddhrta.kanvasmrti) — Kaṇva, Sanskrit - [Āyurveda](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med) --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v1.c17) · Pramāṇa