[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Science, technology and education](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science) › [A History of Hindu Chemistry from the Earliest Times to the Middle of the Sixteenth Century A.D.](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902) › v2.c32 # A History of Hindu Chemistry from the Earliest Times to the Middle of the Sixteenth Century A.D. v2.c32: Chapter VI A History of Hindu Chemistry from the Earliest Times to the Middle of the Sixteenth Century A.D. v2.c32 - **Language:** English ## Contents - [v2.c32.t1 Antiquity of Alchemical Tantras](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.t1) — 135 parts - [v2.c32.s1 Chapter VI](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.s1) — 9 parts - [v2.c32.s2 Chemistry in Rasaratnakara of Nagarjuna](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.s2) — 2 parts - [v2.c32.s3 Chemistry in Rasahridaya of Bhikshu Govinda](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.s3) — 24 parts - [v2.c32.s4 Chemistry in Kakachandesvari-mata Tantra](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.s4) — 3 parts - [v2.c32.s5 Chemistry in Rasendrachudamani of Somadeva](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.s5) — 14 parts - [v2.c32.s6 Chemistry in Rasaprakasa-sudhakara of Yasodhara](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.s6) — 14 parts - [v2.c32.s7 Chemistry in Rasachintamani of Madanantadeva](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.s7) — 9 parts - [v2.c32.s8 Chemistry in Rasakalpa (Rudra-yamala Tantra)](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.s8) — 2 parts - [v2.c32.s9 Chemistry in Rasarajalakshmi of Vishnudeva](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.s9) — 2 parts - [v2.c32.s10 Chemistry in Rasanakshatramalika of Mathanasimha, Physician to the King of Malwa](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.s10) — 1 part - [v2.c32.s11 Chemistry in Rasaratnakara of Nityanatha](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.s11) — 5 parts - [v2.c32.s12 Chemistry in Dhaturatnamala](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.s12) — 2 parts - [v2.c32.s13 Chemistry in Rasapradipa](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.s13) — 2 parts - [v2.c32.s14 Chemistry in Dhatukriya or Dhatumanjari (Rudrayamala Tantra)](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.s14) — 30 parts - [v2.c32.s15 Chemistry in Suvarnatantra or Svarnatantra](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.s15) — 7 parts - [v2.c32.s16 Knowledge of Gems](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.s16) — 37 parts ### Chapter VI ### [v2.c32.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.1) SOME NOTED INDIAN ALCHEMISTS AND THEIR WORKS xciv-xcvi ### [v2.c32.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.2) \*THE TANTRIC PERIOD\* \*(CONTINUED FROM VOL. I.)\* ### [v2.c32.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.3) CHEMISTRY IN RASARATNA'KARA OF NA'GA'R- JUNA 1-9 ### [v2.c32.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.4) CHEMISTRY IN RASAHRIDAYA OF BHIKSHU GOVINDA 9-12 ### [v2.c32.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.5) CHEMISTRY IN KA'KACHANDESVARI'MATA TANTRA 12-13 ### [v2.c32.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.6) CHEMISTRY IN RASENDRACHU'DA'MANI OF SOMADEVA 14-16 ### [v2.c32.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.7) CHEMISTRY IN RASAPRAKA'SA-SUDHA'KARA OF YASODHARA 16-18 ### [v2.c32.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.8) CHEMISTRY IN RASACHINTA'MANI OF MADA- NA'NTA DEVA 18-19 ### [v2.c32.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.9) CHEMISTRY IN RASAKALPA (RUDRAYA'MALA TANTRA) 19-22 ### [v2.c32.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.10) CHEMISTRY IN RASARĀJALAKSHMĪ OF VISHNUDEVA 22 ### [v2.c32.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.11) CHEMISTRY IN RASANAKSHATRAMĀLIKĀ OF MATHANASIMHA, PHYSICIAN TO THE KING OF MALWA 22-23 ### [v2.c32.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.12) CHEMISTRY IN RASARATNĀKARA OF NITYANĀTHA 23 ### [v2.c32.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.13) CHEMISTRY IN DHĀTURATNAMĀLĀ 23 ### [v2.c32.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.14) CHEMISTRY IN RASAPRADĪPA 24 ### [v2.c32.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.15) CHEMISTRY IN DHĀTUKRIYĀ OR DHĀTUMANJARĪ (RUDRAYĀMALA TANTRA) 24-27 ### [v2.c32.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.16) CHEMISTRY IN SUVARNATANTRA OR SVARNATANTRA 28-29 ### [v2.c32.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.17) KNOWLEDGE OF GEMS Relative weight—Hardness—Lustre, Transparency, Colour and other Optical Properties—Fusibility—General and Concluding Remarks 30-41 ### [v2.c32.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.18) NOTE ON THE METHOD OF PREPARING CAUSTIC ALKALI 42-43 ### [v2.c32.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.19) THE TANTRISTS, THE ROSICRUCIANS AND THE SEEKERS AFTER TRUTH 44-49 ### [v2.c32.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.20) THE METALS AND THEIR LOSS IN WEIGHT AFTFR CALCINATION 51-53 ### [v2.c32.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.21) ANTIMONY 54 ### [v2.c32.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.22) THE PREPARATION KNOWN AS SVARNASINDŪRA OR MAKARADHVAJA 55-57 ### [v2.c32.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.23) IDENTIFICATION OF METALS BY THEIR COLOURATION OF FLAMES 57 ### [v2.c32.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.24) THE AGE OF BHIKSHU GOVINDA, THE AUTHOR OF RASAHṚDAYA 57-58 ### [v2.c32.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.25) THE MECHANICAL, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL THEORIES OF THE ANCIENT HINDUS. ### [v2.c32.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.26) The Sa'nkhya-Pa'tanjala System ### [v2.c32.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.27) Prakriti, the Ultimate Ground—The Original Constituents and their Interaction—The Starting Point—Beginning of Evolution— Formation of Wholes or Systems—Collocation of Reals—The Formula of Evolution—The Conservation of Energy (and of Mass)—The Transformation of Energy—The Doctrine of Causation a Corollary from the Conservation and Transformation of Energy—The Principle of Collocation—The Storing-up and the Liberation of Energy—Chain of Causation—Fixed Order—Time, Space and the Causal Series—Space as Extension and Space as Position—The Causal Series—The Dissipation of Energy ( and of Mass)—Their Dissolution into the Formless Prakriti—The Evolution of Matter—The Genesis of the Infra-atomic Unit-potentials and of the Atoms—Cosmo-genesis, a Bird's-eye View—Chemical Analysis and Synthesis—Elements and Compounds 59-124 ### [v2.c32.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.28) Chemistry in the Medical Schools of Ancient India ### [v2.c32.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.29) Physical Characters of the Bhútas—The Maha'-Bhu'tas—Mechanical Mixtures—Qualities of Compounds—The extant Charaka and Susruta—Succession of Medical Authorities—Preparation of Chemical Compounds—Chemical Compositions and Decompositions—Organic Compounds—Poisons—Fœtal Development ( after Susruta )—Chemistry of Digestion—Formation of Molecular Qualities in Chemical Compounds—Chemistry of Colours—Parina'ma-va'da versus A'rambha-va'da 124-158 ### [v2.c32.30](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.30) \*Weights and Measures\* ### [v2.c32.31](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.31) Measures of Time and Space—Bha'skara'cha'ryya, a Precursor of Newton in the Conception of the Differential Calculus and its Application to Astronomy—Measures of Weight and Capacity—Size of the Minimum Visibile (Atom) 158-168 ### [v2.c32.32](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.32) \*Vedantic System\* ### [v2.c32.33](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.33) Ma'ya'—Evolution of Different Forms of Matter—Panchí-karana 168—176 ### [v2.c32.34](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.34) \*The Atomic Theory of the Buddhists\* 177-178 ### [v2.c32.35](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.35) \*The Atomic Theory of the Jains\* ### [v2.c32.36](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.36) General Properties of Matter—Atomic Linking 178-185 ### [v2.c32.37](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.37) \*The Nya'ya-Vaiseshika Chemical Theory\* ### [v2.c32.38](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.38) Theory of Atomic Combination—Chemical Combination—Mono-Bhautic Compounds - Hetero-Bhautic Compounds—The Theory of Dynamic Contact (Vishtambha)—Oils, Fats, Milks—Mixtures like Soups, Solutions, etc.-- Chemical Action and Heat—Light Rays—Theory of Reflection, Refraction etc.-- Arrangement of Atoms in Space—The Foundations of Solid Co-ordinate Geometry—Three Axes of Va'chaspati - Graphic Representation of the Constitution of a Bi-Bhautic Compound (with "complex contact") 185-215 ### [v2.c32.39](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.39) \*Conception of Molecular Motion (Parispanda)\* ### [v2.c32.40](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.40) Parispanda—Gati-Santa'na—Current and Wave Motion—Vibrations and Waves of Water—Sound-Waves—Different Views of their Nature—Rays of Light 215-221 ### [v2.c32.41](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.41) THE DATE OF RASARATNASAMUCHCHAYA 222-223 ### [v2.c32.42](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.42) THE WEIGHT OF AIR (\*By Principal B. N. Seal\*) 223-224 ### [v2.c32.43](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.43) APPENDIX ### [v2.c32.44](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.44) THE HINDU DOCTRINE OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD ### [v2.c32.45](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.45) Doctrine of Scientific Method—Test of Truth—Perception—Observation and Experiment—Results in the Different Sciences—Fallacies of Observation—Doctrine of Inference—The Cha'rva'ka View—The Buddhists, their Analysis and Vindication of Inference—Causality and Identity of Essence—How to ascertain Concomitance—Specific Cause and Specific Effect—Canon of the Method of Subtraction—The Joint Method of Difference (Panchaka'rani)—Proof of the Method—Doubt and its limits—The Nya'ya Doctrine of Inference—Definition of a Cause—Unconditional Antecedent—The Doctrine of Anyatha'-siddha—Elimination of the Irrelevent Factors—Nya'ya objection to the Method of Difference—The Nya'ya analysis of the Causal Relation Continued—Co-effects—Synchronousness of Causes and Effects—Plurality of Causes—The Nya'ya ground of Inference—Vya'pti or Unconditional Concomitance—Ascertainment of Vya'pti—Upa'dhi—Process of disproving suspected Upadhis—Tarka or Uha—Difference between the Nya'ya Method and Mill's Joint Method of Agreement—Other Instances of Vya'pti—Relation of Causality to Vya'pti—Plurality of Causes—Scientific Methods as subsidiary to General Methodology and the Ascertainment of Truth—Hypotheses—Conditions of a Legitimate Hypothesis—Nirnaya or Verification of a Hypothesis—The Deduction Method—Navya Nya'ya and its Significance in the History of Thought—Applied Logic—The Logic of the Particular Sciences—The Scientific Methods as applied to Therapeutics—The Scientific Methods as applied to Grammar and Philology—Conclusion 225-284 ### [v2.c32.46](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.46) ADDENDA ### [v2.c32.47](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.47) Empirical Recipes of Chemical Technology ### [v2.c32.48](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.48) Searing of Rocks—Hardening of Steel—Preparation of Cements—Nourishment of Plants 285-290 ### [v2.c32.49](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.49) ERRATA ### [v2.c32.50](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.50) SANSKRIT TEXTS ### [v2.c32.51](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.51) Extracts from Rasaratna´kara 3-17 ### [v2.c32.52](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.52) Extracts from Rasahridaya 18-41 ### [v2.c32.53](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.53) Extracts from Ka´kachandesvari´mata Tantra 42-50 ### [v2.c32.54](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.54) Extracts from Rasendrachu´da´mani 51-56 ### [v2.c32.55](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.55) Extracts from Rasapraka´sasudha´kara 57-67 ### [v2.c32.56](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.56) Extracts from Rasachinta´mani 68-71 ### [v2.c32.57](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.57) Extracts from Rasakalpa 72-79 ### [v2.c32.58](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.58) Extracts from Rasara´jalakshmi 79-82 ### [v2.c32.59](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.59) Extracts from Rasanakshatrama´lika´ 82-83 ### [v2.c32.60](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.60) Extracts from Rasaratna´kara 84-86 ### [v2.c32.61](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.61) Extracts from Dha´turatnama´la´ 86-89 ### [v2.c32.62](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.62) Extracts from Rasapradi´pa 90-94 ### [v2.c32.63](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.63) Extracts from Dha´tukriya´ or Dha´tu-manjari 95-146 ### [v2.c32.64](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.64) Extracts from Suvarnatantra or Svarnatantra 147-152 ### [v2.c32.65](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.65) INDEX ### [v2.c32.66](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.66) Index of Proper Names The provided image is a blank, yellowed page. There is no text or content to transcribe. ### [v2.c32.67](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.67) On the age of Nagarjuna and the Buddhist Alchemical Tantras. ### [v2.c32.68](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.68) Rise, development and propagation of Maháyánism. ### [v2.c32.69](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.69) IN the first Volume it has been incidentally mentioned that side by side with the Sivaite Tantras we have their Buddhist counterparts in which the salient features of the former appear.\* The question now arises : when did the votaries of the religion of Sákyamuni find themselves called upon to engraft upon their simple and pure creed the ensemble of the gross and grotesque superstitions, the hideous incantations, as also the speculative, the metaphysical and esoteric phases of spiritual aspirations of which the Tantras are the repositories? The answer cannot be given off hand in a few words, for it will lead us to a discussion of the origin and development of Maháyánism. Under ordinary circumstances we should have considered it beside our purpose to devote much space to this subject in a work dealing with the history of chemistry. But it so happens that the most prominent figure in Indian alchemy, who is acknowledged on all hands to be the discoverer of the processes of distillation, sublimation etc., is no other than the reputed founder of the Mádhyamika system of philosophy, the renowned Nágárjuna. A brief and rapid survey of the causes which led to the origin of Maháyánism and its intimate connection with the tenets of the Sivaite cult will be of help to us. ### [v2.c32.70](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.70) ∗ Vol. i, Intro. lxx. ### [v2.c32.71](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.71) It is one of the saddest episodes in the history of the great religions of the world that the purity of life, right conduct, right living—in short, the moral code upon which their founders have always laid particular stress, soon begin to occupy a subordinate position and a dogmatic theology springs up in time, which gives occupation to the subtlest intellect. ### [v2.c32.72](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.72) As for the masses of the people it is doubtful if ever they have remained contented with the mere ethical aspect of a religion. At any rate we find that immediately after the tidings of the death of Buddha had spread about there was a squabble among his followers for the possession of the master's corporeal relics and in course of time stūpas were raised over them, which no less than the three jewels (\*Ratnatraya\*)—the Buddha, the Dharma and the Samgha,—and the Bodhi-tree became objects of worship of the devotee. The Chaityas, Viháras and other sanctuaries of divers sorts, with which Buddhistic India was dotted over in the first and second centuries after the decease of the great Teacher, afforded asylums for a vast multitude of monks, who, freed from all worldly cares, found ample leisure to formulate and draw up a code of spiritual and disciplinary exercises. ### [v2.c32.73](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.73) Although their high ideal was "to lead sweet lives of purest chastity" and induce their lay brethren to follow in their footsteps, rituals and ceremonials of an imposing and elaborate character soon obscured the ray of light which shone forth from the founder. Thus we find that within 150 years after the passing away of Buddha tedious and circumstantial regulations as to the quality of robes to be worn by the Bhikshus, the mode of bathing and fasting, the taking of the midday meal, the drinking of unchurned milk, probation and penance, dwellings and furniture and so forth were amongst the weighty subjects for discussion in the Second General Council.\* We need not pursue the subject further. The reader who is interested in the study of comparative religions will find striking parallels in the early history of the Christian Church. † ### [v2.c32.74](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.74) \[^ \*\]: "On the daily Life of the Bhikshus." Vinaya Texts (S. B. E. Series). The Chullavagga, Pt. iii, p. 66. \[^ †\]: The Sermon on the Mount was more or less forgotten. Idolatry disappeared, it is true, but only to re-appear in the shape of Mariolatry and the worship of Saints and relics. In the heat of the schismatic strifes, Christian Charity had to make shift for itself as best as it could. Theologians were busy with the interpretation of the writings of the fathers. In a word, the dogmatic to a large extent superseded the moral element of religion. ### [v2.c32.75](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.75) We are not concerned here with tracing the rise, progress or decline of Buddhism; if we have at all referred to its excrescences, it is only to prepare the mind of the reader for the proper understanding of the Maháyánist development. ### [v2.c32.76](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.76) The India of Asoka and of the fourth and third centuries B. C. was in the main Buddhist, but it should not for a moment be supposed that the old faith was extinct. The triumph and ascendancy of the teachings of Sákyamuni and his followers were due in a large measure to the fact that they drew upon, and incorporated into, their creed much that was essentially of Hindu origin.\[\*\] As Dr. Bhándárkar observes :— ### [v2.c32.77](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.77) ∗ Prof. Rhys Davids expresses the same views in several places :—" There is ample evidence even in the books of the orthodox body of Brahman teachers to show that when Buddhism arose there was not only much discussion of the ultimate problems of life, and a keen interest in the result, but also that there was a quite unusually open field for all sorts of speculations."—"Buddhism." American Lectures on the History of Religions (1896), p. 26. Again : " But Buddhism is essentially an Indian system. The Buddha himself was, ### [v2.c32.78](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.78) “But it was not the metaphysical doctrines of Buddhism that influenced the masses of the people. What proved attractive was its ethical side. The Buddhist preachers discoursed on Dharma or righteousness to the people. Such discourses on Dharma without the introduction of any theistic idea have their representatives in the Brahmanic literature. In many of the episodes of the Mahábhárata especially in the Sánti and Anusásanika books we have ### [v2.c32.79](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.79) throughout his career, a characteristic Indian . . . . . he was the greatest and wisest and best of Hindus.”—ibid, p. 117. The same high authority puts it more tersely when he says: “This is partly, no doubt, because we call them Buddhists, and imagine them, therefore, to belong to a separate class, quite distinct from other Indians of that stock. The Buddhists were, as a matter of fact, characteristically and distinctly Indian.”—“Buddhist India,” p. 165. Cf. “Buddhism, in fact, may be regarded as a reformed phase of Hindu religion and ethical activity. The Buddhistic doctrine of the vanity of the world had been thoroughly disseminated by Yájnavalkya (in the Satapatha Bráhmana) and with it the practice of subsistence upon alms as Pravrájaka or Bhikshu; and a fruitful soil had thereby been prepared for Buddhism.” Weber’s “Hist. Sans. Lit.” trans. 3rd Ed. (1892) p. 285. Again “This teaching contains, in itself, absolutely nothing new; on the contrary, it is essentially identical with the corresponding Brahminical doctrine; only the fashion in which Buddha proclaimed and disseminated it was something altogether novel and unwonted.”—ibid, p. 289. ### [v2.c32.80](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.80) simply ethical discourses without any reference to God, of the nature of those we find in the Buddhist works; and sometimes the verses in the Mahābhárata are the same as those occurring in the latter. There appears to be at one time a period in which the thoughts of the Hindus were directed to the delineation of the right conduct in itself without any theistic learning. And Buddhism on its ethical scale represents that phase. Right conduct is the last of the four noble truths of Buddhism.” ### [v2.c32.81](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.81) “It was this phase of Buddhism that with the strenuous efforts of the missionaries and of the Emperor Asoka enables it to achieve success amongst the masses of the people; and what was wanting on the theistic side was supplied by the perfection and marvellous powers attributed to the founder of the religion. Without this faith in the perfection or, what we should call the divine nature of Buddha, a mere ethical religion would probably not have succeeded. Buddhism was not a social revolution as has been thought by some writers. It was a religion established and propagated by persons who had renounced the world and professed not to care for it. From times of old there existed in the Indian community such persons who were called Sramanas and belonged originally to all castes. These gave themselves to contemplation and sometimes propounded doctrines of salvation not in harmony with the prevalent creed. Buddhism was not even a revolt against caste, for though men from all castes were admitted to the monastic order, and though in the discourses of Buddha himself and others the distinction of caste is pronounced to be entirely worthless, still the object of those who elaborated the system was not to level caste distinctions. They even left the domestic ceremonies of their followers to be performed according to the Vedic ritual. This is one of the arguments brought against Buddhism by Udayanáchárya. "There does not exist," he says, "a sect, the followers of which do not perform the Vedic rites beginning with Garbhádhána and ending with the funeral, even though they regard them as having relative or tentative truth."\* Buddhism, however, was a revolt against the sacrificial system and denied the authority of the Vedas as calculated to point out the path to salvation. And this is the root of the hostility between itself and Brahmanism.”\* ### [v2.c32.82](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.82) ∗ नास्त्येत तद्दर्शनं यत्र सांवतमेतदित्युक्तापि गर्भाधानाद्यन्त्येष्टि पर्यन्तां वैदिकों क्रियां जनो नानुतिष्ठति । Atmatattvaviveka, Calc. Ed. of Samvat 1906, p. 19, सांवत relating to संवृति, a Buddhist technical term. ### [v2.c32.83](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.83) The zealous missionaries of Buddhism captured the heart of the masses by appealing to their moral instincts. Persuasion and not persecution was the instrument they chose to wield. King Asoka proclaimed universal toleration; he inculcated respect for Brahmins as well as Sramanas or ascetics of all sects. It is a relief to find that the mighty monarch had never recourse to brute force for the propagation of his creed. We are spared all the scenes of blood, rapine and violence, which disfigure the pages of religious history in the West. ### [v2.c32.84](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.84) It has already been pointed out that Buddhism itself may be looked upon as an offspring of Hinduism; nay, it is a logical outcome of the principles enunciated in the ### [v2.c32.85](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.85) \[^ \*\]: “A peep into the Early History of India from the foundation of the Maurya Dynasty to the fall of the Imperial Gupta Dynasty” (B.C. 322—Circa 500 A. D.) pp. 362-363. Journal of the Bombay branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1900), Vol. xx. No. LVI. ### [v2.c32.86](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.86) Sámkhya system of philosophy. If India so readily responded to the teachings of the new faith, it is not because she renounced Hinduism but because she found that all that was highest and noblest in the latter was absorbed in the former. The great Teacher who now arose gave only a new shape and direction and a vigorous impetus to the germ of ideas already in existence and turned them to capital account. A good deal of confusion may be avoided by bearing in mind this aspect of the question. When speaking of Buddhist India one is apt to rush to the conclusion that every vestige of Hinduism had disappeared off the face of the vast continent. As a matter of fact even during the zenith of Buddhistic glory Brahminism was rearing its head and was professed by not a few among the cultured and intellectual classes and was ready to assert itself whenever a favourable occasion arose. ### [v2.c32.87](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.87) In the second century B. C., we find the Kábul valley, the Punjab and Málava acnowledging the sway of the Princes of the Turkish race.\[\*\] Wema Kadiphses, the second of the Kushana Dynasty is spoken of as a devotee of Mahesvara; his coins bear the emblem of Nandin on the reverse, which is accompanied by a human figure which holds a trident in its right arm representing Siva.\[†\] The last three Kushanas—Kanishka, Huvishka and Vásudeva—have been noticed in the Rájataramginí,\[‡\] and the emblems on the reverse of their coins are figures of deities borrowed from the Greek, Persian and Brahminical pantheon and of Buddha. Thus the Gods of all these four religions shared the adoration of these Turkish Kings. But the figure of Buddha in the ### [v2.c32.88](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.88) \[\*\] Lassen "Indische Alterthumskunde," Vol. ii, pp. 811-13 Ed. 1874. \[†\] Ibid, pp. 808-811. \[‡\] See next page. Regarding the reliability of the account in the Rájataramginí, Dr. Stein observes :-" Kalhana's account of the reign of these kings, who are supposed to have ruled simultaneously, is brief enough, but undoubtedly preserves data of genuine historical tradition. It clearly describes them as princes of Turuska, i. e, Turkish nationality, as powerful sovereigns and as faithful patrons of the Buddhist Church. On these points the statements of sitting or meditative and the standing posture is to be found on the coins of Kanishka alone.\* ### [v2.c32.89](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.89) In the Buddhist ecclesiastical history Kanishka occupies a prominent place. It was in his reign and under his patronage that the Third Council was held to settle the canon once again. The church was convulsed by internal dissensions and schisms, resulting in its being split up into as many as 18 sects. “The most significant trait of the Third Council is that it closed a period of old quarrels between the sects ; it did not prevent the rise of new aspirations. Maháyánism, which in an incipient stage was already existing erelong, boldly raised its head.”† ### [v2.c32.90](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.90) the Chronicle are fully supported by the evidence of our most authentic records. The continued existence of the three places, Kanishkapura, Hushkapura, and Jushkapura, which are described as foundations of these kings and which still survive to the present day is likely to have assisted in preserving a recollection of their founders.” ### [v2.c32.91](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.91) ∗ Percy Gardner : “Coins of Greek and Scythic kings” pp. 129 ff. Cunningham : “Num. Chr.” 1892, pp. 63 ff. † Kern : Manual of Ind. Bud. (Grundiss d. Indo.-Arischen Phil.) p. 122. ### [v2.c32.92](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.92) Hinduism was now very much alive. After the Third Council the distinction between the Hīnayānists and the Mahāyānists became more and more accentuated. The apostles of the latter development became convinced that in order to draw into their folds the bulk of the people some sort of compromise was necessary, that orthodox Buddhism in all its rigidity must be given up. In other words, the neo-Buddhism which now sprang into existence began to absorb and assimilate the popular form of Brahminism and thus swell the ranks of its followers. A purely ethical creed has never secured a following except perhaps among a chosen few. To quote the eloquent words of the historian of "Rationalism in Europe":— ### [v2.c32.93](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.93) "There arise from time to time men who bear to the moral condition of their age much the same relations as men of genius bear to its intellectual condition. They anticipate the moral standard of a later age, cast abroad conceptions of disinterested virtue, of philanthropy, or of self-denial that seem to bear no relation to the spirit of their time, inculcate duties and suggest motives of action that ### [v2.c32.94](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.94) appear to most men altogether chimerical. Yet the magnetism of their perfection tells powerfully upon their contemporaries. An enthusiasm is kindled, a group of adherents is formed, and many are emancipated from the moral condition of their age. Yet the full effects of such a movement are but transient. The first enthusiasm dies away, surrounding circumstances resume their ascendency, the pure faith is materialised, encrusted with conceptions that are alien to its nature, dislocated, and distorted till its first features have almost disappeared. The moral teaching being unsuited to the time becomes inoperative until its appropriate civilisation has dawned, or at most it faintly and imperfectly filters through an accumulation of dogmas, and thus accelerates in some measure the arrival of the condition it requires.” Vol. i, p. 305, Ed. 1900. ### [v2.c32.95](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.95) The same historian in explaining the rapid spread of Christianity in Europe observes in another place :—“It triumphed not so much by superseding rival faiths as by absorbing and transforming them. Old systems, old rites, old images were grafted into the new belief, retaining much of their ancient character, but assuming new names and a new complexion.” ### [v2.c32.96](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.96) Among the bold spirits who took a leading part in this renovation the name of Nágárjuna stands conspicuous. The Mádhyamika system, with its axiom—\*sarvam Sunyam\*—a form of Pyrrhonism pushed to its extreme limits, which is an essential part of Maháyánism is generally ascribed to him. Northern Buddhistic literature is replete with the marvels and miracles performed by him, and tradition has invested him with superhuman powers. Hiouen 'Thsang calls him along with Deva, Asvaghosha and Kumáralabdha, "as the four suns which illumine the world."\* As early as A.D. 401-409 we find a life of Nágárjuna Bodhisattva translated into Chinese.† Táranátha has committed to writing all the floating mass of legends connected with this venerable name, but as the Tibetan monk wrote so late as the beginning of the 17th century A.D., and as nothing was too astounding for his pious credulity, we have here only nuclei of facts round which have gathered accretions of vast proportions. It is now almost a hopeless task to separate the grain from the chaff. Nevertheless we can glean certain historical data from all that have been handed down. Before proceeding further we think it proper to treat the reader to a specimen of the materials with which one has to deal. We cull the following bits from the "Life and Legends of Nágárjuna" gathered chiefly from Tibetan records including Táranátha's "History of Buddhism." ### [v2.c32.97](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.97) ∗ Julien's texts, Vol. ii, p. 214. † Bun. Nanjio's Catalogue, Ap. i, No. 3. ### [v2.c32.98](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.98) Nágárjuna : a leading representative of Maháyánism. ### [v2.c32.99](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.99) "A rich Brahmin of the Vidarbha country to whom no son had been born for many years, once saw in a vision, that if he gave alms to, and entertained one hundred Brahmins, he could get a son. Accordingly he made offerings and prayers to the God and entertained one hundred Brahmins. After ten months his wife gave birth to a son. The rich man invited learned astrologers to predict the fortunes of his child; but they found that it could not live more than a week. In all other respects the child was calculated to be fortunate......... The astrologers assured them (his parents) that if they entertained one hundred Bhikshus, it would live seven years, beyond which its life could not be prolonged by any means whatever. When the seventh year was about to expire the parents were overwhelmed with grief. To avoid the painful sight of their son’s predicted death, they caused him to be removed to a certain solitary place in company with a few retainers. ### [v2.c32.100](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.100) “As the boy (Nāgārjuna) was passing his mournful days, one day the Mahābodhisattva Avalokiteswara Khasarpana visited him in disguise and advised him to go to the great monastery of Nālendra in Magadha as the surest means of escaping from the hands of death. He accordingly repaired to that famous Vihāra and arriving at the gate recited some gāthās. During that time the great sage Srī Saraha Bhadra was the high priest of Nālendra, ........... who ordained Nāgārjuna a Bhikshu of the Vihāra. \* \* \* \* During the latter part of his office the country was visited by a famine in consequence of which the monks fell into great distress. The Manager became very thoughtful about the terrible effects of the natural calamity. Distress and scarcity compelled the congregation more keenly to feel the necessity of money. The monks now determined to devise some means of acquiring treasures for the support of the famished congregation, and Nāgārjuna accordingly started on an expedition to visit an island in the great ocean where lived a great saint well versed in the art of alchemy. As the sea could not be crossed by any earthly means, he, by dint of his divine learning, got two leaves of an enchanted tree, by means of which he crossed the ocean and miraculously visited the island and presented himself before the sage who was greatly surprised to see a human being arrived at his abode deemed inaccessible to mortal beings. The sage earnestly inquired how he succeeded in achieving this wonder. Nāgārjuna replied respectfully stating to him the reasons of his visit and circumstances that brought him thither. He also showed him one of the enchanted leaves, concealing the other in his mendicant's platter. He begged him to teach the art of turning metals into gold. The sage consented to the proposal, but not liking to let the wonderful art be known in Jambudvīpa, he determined to detain him for ever in the island by depriving him of the enchanted leaf. To effect this, he said that he could not teach the art of alchemy unless Nāgārjuna consented to part with the leaf. Nāgārjuna consented, and was taught the art. When it was fully mastered, he flew towards the Indian Continent by the help of the remaining leaf. Returning to Nālendra, by means of his easily acquired wealth he supported the whole body of monks. By his religious practices he obtained Siddhi (perfection). He refuted the theories of \*Samkarāchārya\* \* and imparted religious instruction to the monks of Nālendra. ### [v2.c32.101](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.101) “Nāgārjuna returned to his country after a visit to Uttarakuru and erected many chaityas and temples, composed many works on science, medicine, astronomy and alchemy. After the death of Saraha Bhadra, the office of high priest fell upon Nāgārjuna, which he managed with great ability and indefatigable zeal. He matured the Mādhyamika philosophy which was only conceived by his illustrious teacher Saraha.” ### [v2.c32.102](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.102) “Nāgārjuna is said to have been a great friend of king De-Chye (\*Samkara\*) of S. India, whom he converted to Buddhism.”† ### [v2.c32.103](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.103) ∗ An instance of glaring anachronism. \*Samkara\* flourished in the 8th—9th century A. D. See below, foot-note to p. xxii. † S. C. Dás: Journ, As. Soc. li, Pt. i, pp. 115—120. ### [v2.c32.104](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.104) One thing seems to be clear from the above, namely, that Nágárjuna was born and brought up in the Brahminical faith but was afterwards converted to Buddhism and was celebrated as an alchemist. ### [v2.c32.105](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.105) Táranátha, it is true, completed his History in 1608 A. D.,\* but he derived his materials from Tibetan sources and the analysis of Dulva by Csoma goes to confirm this account. We have already made use of the record left us by Hiouen 'Thsang.† It is thus clear that all the testimonies concur in ascertaining Nágárjuna not only as the originator of the Mádhyamika philosophy but also as an adept in magic, conjuration and alchemy, and that even so early as the 7th century A. D. The exact time during which he flourished is a matter of controversy. He is generally regarded as a contemporary of Kanishka. One cannot go far wrong in assigning circa 150 A. D. as the date of his succeeding to the Patriarchate.∗ ### [v2.c32.106](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.106) ∗ Schiefner : Gesch. d. Bud. Pref. vi. ### [v2.c32.107](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.107) ∗ According to Lassen Nágárjuna lived about A. D. 23 during the reign of Kanishka. The Rájataramginí says : "Then there were in this land three kings called Hushka, Jushka and Kanishka, who built three towns named after them (Hushkapura, Jushkapura and Kanishkapura) . . . . . During the powerful reign of these \[kings\] the land of Kásmír was, to a great extent, in the possession of the Buddhas. At that time 150 years had passed in this terrestrial world since the blessed Sákya Simha (Buddha) had obtained complete beatitude (Nirvána).......... And a Bodhisattva lived (then) in this country as the lord of the land, namely, the glorious Nágárjuna.......... Stein's trans. Vol. I, pp. 30—31. As the tradition of the Northern Buddhists as recorded by Hiouen 'Thsang (Si-yu-ki, I. pp. 99, 151', the Tibetan Dulva (Csoma, As. Res. XX, pp. 92, 297) as also Schiefner (Tár. Gesch. d. Bud. p. 301) concur in placing the commencement of Kanishka's rule 400 years after Buddha's Nirvána, the date assigned here to Nágárjuna is rather curious. Lassen sums up his conclusion on this knotty point in these words :—" Wegen der grossen Anzahl seiner Münzen mus dem Kanishka eine ziemlich lange Regierung Zugeschrieben werden ; ich glaube daher annehmen zu durfen, das er etwa bis 40 nach Chr. G. regiert habe." Fleet maintains B. C. 57. V. Smith c. 120 A. D. While Messrs. Bhándárkar c. 278 A. D. (Journ. Bombay Br. Roy. As. Soc. Vol. XX, No. lvi, pp. 269—396) as the date of Kanishka.. ### [v2.c32.108](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.108) Nágárjuna as an adept in magic and alchemy. ### [v2.c32.109](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.109) An important document has been preserved for us in its Tibetan and Chinese versions, which seems to have an historical basis. It is in the shape of a "Friendly Epistle of Nágárjuna to king Udyana."\* ### [v2.c32.110](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.110) Nágárjuna as a contemporary and friend of king Sadváhana. The original in Sanskrit, entitled Suhrillekha, has not yet been recovered and probably been lost. Udyana in the Tibetan subscription is Bdye-Spyod=Sadváhana.† This Sadváhana is a prominent figure in the history of S. India. In ancient Sanskrit literature he is frequently spoken of as a patron of learning and there are several literary reminiscences associated with this name. ‡ ### [v2.c32.111](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.111) ∗ Vide Wenzel : Journ. Pali Text Soc. (1886), p. 1. † S. C. Dás (l. c.) says : "Nágárjuna is said to have been a great friend of king De-Chye (i. e. Samkara) of S. India, whom he converted to Buddhism." Now De-Chye=Bdye-byed according to modern pronounciation. Dás is evidently in error in rendering De-Chye as Samkara (Wenzel). ‡ Cf.—Kámasútra of Vátsyáyana. कर्तर्या कुन्तलः शातकर्णिः सातवाहनो महादेवीं मलयवतीं \[जघान\]। Referring to a "new" MS. of Harshacharita in his possession Hall remarks—"for Sáliváhana I there find Sátaváhana"—Intro. to "Vásavadattá," p. 54, This by implication would suggest that the other MS. had the reading Sáliváhana. ### [v2.c32.112](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.112) Now "the Andhrabhrityas or Sátaváhanas ruled over the Deccan from B. C. 73 to about A. D. 218, i.e. for about 3 centuries. ### [v2.c32.113](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.113) "The period during which they ruled over Maháráshtra must have been a prosperous one in the history of the country. Hence several traditions with regard to different kings have been preserved. But that Sáliváhana or Sátaváhana was a family name must have been forgotten and different princes of the dynasty have been confounded and identified. Thus Hemachandra in his Desikosha gives Sáliváhana, Sálana, Hála and Kuntala as the names of one individual." \* ### [v2.c32.114](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.114) The So-to-p’o-ho of the Chinese version of the "Friendly Epistle" has been identified with one of the Sátaváhanas or Andhra kings, possibly Yajna-Srí-Sátakarni, who seems to have reigned about 172—202 A. D. There is, therefore, nothing improbable in this particular, Sátaváhana being a contemporary of Nágárjuna. In the alchemical Tantra, "Rasaratnákara," ascribed to Nágárjuna, ### [v2.c32.115](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.115) \[^ \*\]: Bhándárkar's "Early History of the Deccan"--p. 36. ### [v2.c32.116](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.116) there is a dialogue between this sage and Sáliváhana (p. 6). We shall revert to this subject later on. ### [v2.c32.117](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.117) Numerous works have been fathered on Nágárjuna and it is an open question if any of them be genuine.\[\*\] As is well known Vyása or more properly named Vedavyása has been taken to be the compiler of not only the four Vedas but also of all the Puránas put together. Piety and credulity go hand in hand and are seldom troubled with questions of anachronism. Plato, Democritus and Geber have been held responsible for writings which appeared several centuries later. Names, venerable and illustrious, have often been pressed into service to lend weight and dignity to productions which otherwise would not have commanded a respectful hearing. On the whole we are inclined to agree ### [v2.c32.118](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.118) Nágárjuna as a comprehensive name of the activity of Maháyánism. ### [v2.c32.119](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.119) ∗ In Bunyin Nanjio's Catalogue of the Bud. Tripitaka there is a list of 24 works ascribed to Nágárjuna. The Suhrillekha was translated into Chinese in 434 A. D. App. pt. I, p. 368. ### [v2.c32.120](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.120) with Kern when he says, "The figure of Nágárjuna, so prominent in the history of the rise of Maháyánism, shows a double character. It is, on the one side, the name of an influential person, the first eminent leader of a school imbued with Hinduism and the methods of Indian scholastic philosophy. On the other hand, Nágárjuna is simply a comprehensive name of the activity of Maháyánism in the first phase of its onward course."\* ### [v2.c32.121](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.121) ∗ In Vol. I of this work (Intro. xciii), we quoted Albérúní as to the date of Nágárjuna. This cultured Arab, ordinarily a very trustworthy guide, derived his information from the Brahmins of that part of India from which every vestige of Buddhism had disappeared in the 11th century and he was evidently misled on this point as the traditions relating to Nágárjuna had at that distance of time become very vague. This will be clearly seen from what Prof. Sachau says in the preface to the Arabic edition of Albérúní. ### [v2.c32.122](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.122) "Its civilization was then essentially Brahminical as it had come to be in a protracted struggle with Buddhism. Albérúní does not know Indian Buddhism from personal experience, though it had not yet entirely withdrawn from India and in some part was still a political power. (p. v.) ### [v2.c32.123](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.123) "The valley of the Kábul river and the Punjab are all that Albérúní has seen of India. (p. xiii.) ### [v2.c32.124](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.124) "The high schools of Hindu science and learning, Kasmir and Benares, were in Albérúní's time unapproachable for Muslems. (p. xiv.)" ### [v2.c32.125](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.125) From the time of Nágárjuna onwards Maháyánism began to be tinged more and more with Brahminical bias. A notable and decided step in this direction was taken by Asamga, a monk of Gándhára, who composed the Yogáchára-bhúmisástra, in which by assimilating the doctrines of Patañjali he paved the way for the growth of the Tantras. He seems to have lived about 400 A. D.\* Vasubandhu, Asamga's younger brother, was another zealous adherent of this school and is said to have been a teacher in the college attached to the monastery of Nálendra—the “Oxford of Indian Buddhism.” From Tibetan sources we learn that the celebrated logician Dignága was a disciple of Vasubandhu, a contemporary of Lha-tho-ri, king of Tibet, who lived up to 371 A. D. \* ### [v2.c32.126](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.126) ∗ Cf.—Takakasu : Journ. Roy. As. Soc. Jan. 1905. A life of Vasubandhu was translated into Chinese by Paramártha. A. D. 557-569.—Bun. Nunj. Cata. p. 371. Csoma Korosi following the Tibetan Chronology says:—"I know that Arya Asamga lived in the sixth or seventh century after Jesus Christ." As. Res. XX, p. 513. This date has been accepted by Lassen (Ind. Alt. ii, p. 460) as also by R. Davids (Buddhism. p. 207). But this chronology has now become untenable. The date of Asamga and his brother Vasubandhu should be put back by about two centuries, as some of their works were translated into Chinese in the beginning of the fifth century and perhaps earlier. (Bun. Nanj. Cata. App. i p. 371). It must have taken a century or two to have their works sufficiently recognised in India before they would deserve a place in the Chinese Tripitaka. ### [v2.c32.127](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.127) Maháyánism now began to adapt itself to its environments. The absorption of the Yoga ideas made the transition into the Tantric cult easy and Northern Buddhism began to develop and expand by entering into an alliance with Saivaism, which favored the growth of Buddhist Tantras. The origin and development of this class of literature have been the subject of a masterly exposition by Burnouf. The Maháyánists not only set up their own deities but borrowed copiously from the pantheon of the Hindus. Thus in the Sivaite Tantras while the God Siva is the fountain of all knowledge and sciences, in their Buddhist counterparts we have the celestial, metaphysical and potential Buddhas\* occupying the same position. The worship of the female energies (Sakti) which plays such an important part in the Tantras was encouraged in the person of Tárá. The Hindu Gods and Goddesses were also objects of adoration, only they were assigned a subordinate position. The question has often been asked: why did Buddhism seek alliance with Saivaism in preference to the Vishnuvite cult? The answer seems to lie in the fact that it was precisely in those parts of India where the worship of Siva, especially in its Tántric form, had struck root that Maháyánism asserted its sway;† and thus the apostles and propagators of the latter made most of the former. A few centuries later when Vaishnavism gained an ascendancy in Bengal the tables seem to have been turned. A gradual and imperceptible fusion took place between the rival creeds. Thus in the celebrated adoration in the opening lines of Gítagovinda we find Buddha freely acknowledged as an incarnation of Vishnu and extolled for his abhorrence of sacrificial rites. \* ### [v2.c32.128](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.128) ∗ S. C. Vidyábhúshana : Journ. As. Soc., Vol i, (1905), p. 227. ### [v2.c32.129](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.129) ∗ i. e. the Bodhisattvas. ### [v2.c32.130](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.130) † Vide ante. p. xi, (under Wema kadiphses). ### [v2.c32.131](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.131) Gradual and imperceptible fusion of Maháyánism with Saivaism. ### [v2.c32.132](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.132) From Fah-hian's travels we gather that in the beginning of the 5th century A. D., the Maháyánists were gaining the upper hand, though their rivals, the Hínayánists, were still holding their own in several localities. Thus at Mathurá and Pátaliputra he found the members of both the sects living side by side and having monasteries of their own. ### [v2.c32.133](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.133) \* निन्दसि यज्ञविधेरहह श्रुतिजातं सदयहृदयदर्शितपशुघातम् । केशव धृतबुद्धशरीर जय जगदीश हरे ॥ ### [v2.c32.134](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.134) It is scarcely correct to assert that Buddhism was exterpated in the land of its birth by cruel persecution. \*Cf.\* Vol. i. Intro. lxvii. The Bengali poet Ramchandra Kavibhárati, author of \*Buddha Sataka\*, though a devoted Buddha, belonged to the same class of thinkers as Jayadeva. Pandit S.P. Sástrí is inclined to place him in the latter end of the 13th century.—Journal of Buddhist Text Society, Vol. I, Pt. iii. So late as 1441 A. D. MSS. of Buddhist works used to be copied from in Magadha.—Bendall's Camb. Cata. of Bud. Sans. MSS. (1883), Pref. iv. ### [v2.c32.135](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.135) From the fact, however, that the pious Chinese pilgrim repeats the Suramgama Sútra for his protection, we may conclude, since he is by no means a pronounced Maháyánist, that the predisposing causes for the origin of the Tantras were already in existence. "In this Sútra is contained the most complete list of Dháranís (invocations) found in any Chinese compilation. There are 426 distinct sections containing the names of the different Buddhas and Hindu deities worshipped at the time of the composition of the Sútra. Considering that Fah-hian in the early part of the 5th century regarded this book with reverence. . . . . . We may reasonably assign it to a period not later than the end of the 1st century. Now amongst the invocations we find distinct reference to Dhyání Buddha, Vairochana, Akshobhya, Amitábha and others shewing that they were coming to be recognised and worshipped even at that early date."\* ### [v2.c32.136](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.136) ∗ Intro. to Beal's "Fah-hian." (Lxxii). ### [v2.c32.137](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.137) These Dhāraṇīs may be looked upon as the precursors of the Tantras and they fully support the views that when they were composed Buddhism had turned a new leaf. The repeating of certain magic formulas along with the names of Buddha Amitábha, etc., was to secure salvation, in other words, "instead of the old doctrine \[of Karman\]—as a man soweth, so he shall reap—a new and easier way of salvation is here preached, viz., as a man prayeth, so he shall be saved. It is what is known to us as salvation by faith rather than by works. . . . . . . It would almost seem as if this popular and easy doctrine had secured to itself the name of Maháyána, as meaning the Broad Way, in opposition to the Narrow Way, the Hínayána.∗" ### [v2.c32.138](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.138) ∗ Max Müller, Buddhist Maháyána Sútras. Intro. to larger Sukhávatí-Vyúha, ix, S. B. E. Series, Vol. xlix. ### [v2.c32.139](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.139) The new class of literature which now arose in order to meet the demands of the Maháyánist revival is collectively known as the Vaipulya Sútras or the Sútras of the Vaipulya Sútras. developed school, of which the Dháranís are an integral part. It found expression in such works as the "Saddharmapundaríka," "Lalitavistara," "Tathágataguhyaka," "Prajñápáramitá," etc.,—all of which soon acquired almost canonical sanctity in the estimation of the N. Buddhists. Burnouf has tried hard to differentiate between the simple Sútras as represented by the literature of the primitive orthodox Buddhism and the expanded Sútras of which the distinguishing mark is the occurrence of Bodhisattvas.\* This drawing of hard and fast lines has been found to be well nigh untenable.\* ### [v2.c32.140](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.140) ∗ "La présence des Bodhisattvas ou leur absence intéresse donc le fonds même des livres oú on la remarque, et il est bien évident que ce seul point trace une ligne de démarcation profonde entre les Sútras ordinaires et les Sútras développés.—Burnouf, Intro. p, 112; ibid, p. ### [v2.c32.141](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.141) ¹²⁰ Ed. 1844. Vide Max Muller's remarks at the end of the Smaller Sukhávatí-Vyúha, p. 102, S. B. E. Series, Vol. xlix. Cf. also "Some Vaipulyas are, materially, much like the old Sútras, whole passages e. g. of Lalita-Vistara recur almost word for word in the Páli Scriptures." Kern (Ind. Bud., p. 5). This eminent Buddhist scholar also very appositely re. ### [v2.c32.142](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.142) By the second century A. D., we find the leading beliefs and ideas as crystallised in the Maháyána literature fully in vogue. Thus we marks elsewhere: "The results arrived at by Burnouf may be right so far as Mahávaipulya Sútra as a whole is concerned, they cannot be applied to all the component parts of such a work. Not to go further than the Saddh. and the L. Vistara, it can hardly be questioned that these works contain parts of very different dates, and from various sources."—Kern—Intro. to Saddhar, pp. x-xi. Passages in L. V. are literally identical with those in Mahávagga. Again:—"These few examples I have chosen will suffice to prove that the material of a Mahávaipulya Sútra is partly as old as that of any other sacred book of the Buddhists."—ibid, xiv. ### [v2.c32.143](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.143) ∗ The truth seems to be that "the historical relation between the Hínayána and the Maháyána schools of Buddhism is to me as great a puzzle as ever."—Max Muller, Intro. to L. Sukh. Vyúha, ix. Even the very distinction between the N. and the S Buddhism has been taken strong exception to by R. Davids, who says:—"There is not now and never has been, any unity either of opinion or of language in what is called northern, or in what is called southern Buddhism. There is a distinct disadvantage in continually suggesting a unity which has no existence in fact. In a word the current division of Buddhist literature into northern and southern is entirely unscientific, and misleading."—Bud. India, p. 173. ### [v2.c32.144](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.144) come across in the "Buddhacharita" of Asvaghosha, who is admitted on all hands to be a contemporary of Kanishka, such a passage as this: "this, Sirs, is the Maháyána, the instrument of the law of the perfect Buddha, which is the establisher of the welfare of all beings, set forth by all the Buddhas."\* The "Lotus of good Law" was translated into Chinese at the close of the second century A. D. † ### [v2.c32.145](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.145) Side by side with the growth of the scriptures another class of literature was called into being by the exigencies of the times—we mean the Tantras, the necessity for which has been hinted at in the first volume. ‡ However esoteric may be the doctrines sought to be conveyed through the medium of these productions, it would be idle to deny that there ### [v2.c32.146](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.146) Buddhistic Tantras. ### [v2.c32.147](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.147) ∗ Cowell's trans. p. ### [v2.c32.148](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.148) ¹⁸⁴ S. B. E. Series, Vol. xlix. † Edkin's "Chinese Buddhism," p. ### [v2.c32.149](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.149) ⁸⁹ There were several versions of this sacred book.—Vide Kern's Intro. p. xxiii (S. B. E. Series). ### [v2.c32.150](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.150) is much in them which is calculated to pander to the baser instincts of frail humanity. At what particular time these Tantras appeared on the scene is yet a matter of conjecture, but the views of Wilson which held the ground for more than 30 years have now been found to be erroneous. Evidence is now forthcoming from quite an unexpected source, which goes to prove that Buddhist Tantras existed as early as the fifth or sixth century A. D., if not earlier.∗ If Buddhist Tantras, again, pre-suppose the existence of Hindu Tantras, one need not be considered as rash in assigning an earlier age to the latter.\[†\] ### [v2.c32.151](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.151) ∗ \*Vide\* the palm-leaf MSS. discovered in the monastery of Horiuzi in Japan and carried from Central India. One of these is in the handwriting of a famous Chinese priest, named Kanshin, who came to Japan in A. D. 753. The MS. contains besides a Dhāraṇī, five Tantras. "Bud. Texts from Japan," ed. by Max Muller. Vol. i, pt. i. Intro. pp. 6-8. It is fair to conclude that these Tantras existed in the land of their birth at least two centuries earlier. ### [v2.c32.152](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.152) \[†\]: Waddell says :—" No one has yet realised the vast extent to which Maháyána and Tántric Buddhist remains cover India ; nor sufficiently realised the leading part played by the Maháyána in Indian Buddhism during its popular period." Journal of the Roy. As. Soc. (1894). ### [v2.c32.153](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.153) The Tantras found a congenial home in China. Amoghavagra, a Sramana of northern India and a Brahmin by caste resided in the Celestial Empire for several years between 746 and 771 A. D., and under his influence the Tantric doctrines dealing with talismanic forms and professions of supernatural power first gained currency there.∗ Hence long before his time Tantras must have been popular in India. From the eighth to the eleventh century A. D. we are in possession of authentic records as regards the prevalence of Tantras in Northern India; as it was about this period that several of these were gradually imported into Tibet by Indian Pandits, but they must have been composed much earlier.† ### [v2.c32.154](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.154) ∗ Bun. Nanjio's Cata. App. ii, p. 445. Amoghavagra translated 77 works including Uṣṇīsha-chakravarti-Tantra, Garudagarbhaga-tantra and Vagrakumára-tantra. Cf.—Also "The existence of the Tantra Śástras may thus apparently be traced at least as far back as the 6th century A. D."—\*Vide\* "Annual Report," As. Soc. Beng. 1906. ### [v2.c32.155](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.155) † In the first half of the eighth century two eminent ### [v2.c32.156](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.156) Tantras imported into Tibet. ### [v2.c32.157](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.157) Atisa gave a fresh impetus to Tantrism in the land of snow. From the analysis of Mdo by Csoma we also come to know in detail the names with the dates of the Indian scholars who with the aid of the local interpreters (lochavas) rendered into Tibetan the various Sanskrit Tantras. The faithful accuracy with which these translations were made and their fidelity to the original enable us often to reproduce the Sanskrit Texts and thus we are in possession of valuable histori- ### [v2.c32.158](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.158) Pandits of Bengal visited Tibet at the invitation of its king and formally introduced there Buddhism; these Pandits were Sánti Rakshita, high priest of the monastery of Nálenda and his co-adjutor Padma Sambhava, a native of Udyana, who took charge of the Tantric part of the Buddhist liturgy. They were followed by the sage Dípamkara-Srínjána (Atisa), b. A. D. 980, d. 1053. He acquired proficiency in the three pitakas of the four classes of the Hínayána Srávakas, in the Vaiseshika philosophy, in the three pitakas of the Maháyána doctrine, the metaphysics of the Mádhyamika and the Yogáchárya schools and the four classes of the Tantras. At the request of king Naya Pála he accepted the post of high priest of the monastery of Vikramasíla.—Vide S. C. Dás,—Journal of the Buddhist Text Soc. Pt. i. ### [v2.c32.159](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.159) cal data.\* Some of these Tantras deal with alchemy and their contents reveal to us the knowledge of chemical processes in India from about the 6th to the 8th century A. D.† ### [v2.c32.160](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.160) † Analysis of the contents of the Mdo (Sútra) by Csoma de Korosi—Asiatic Researches, XX (1836), p. ### [v2.c32.161](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.161) Fortunately we are not dependent upon the Tibetan Tantras alone for gaining an insight into this dark recess in the history of Hindu intellectual activity. In the course of our search ### [v2.c32.162](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.162) Rasaratnákara. ### [v2.c32.163](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.163) ∗ Speaking of the Tibetan translation of Asvaghosha's \*Buddha-Charita\*, Cowell remarks: "The Tibetan version appears to be much closer to the original Sanskrit than the Chinese; in fact from its verbal accuracy we can often reproduce the exact words of the original, since Sanskrit words are always represented by the same Tibetan equivalents, as for instance the prepositions prefixed to verbal roots."—l. c. Intro. p. x. Waddell is equally impressed with the "profoundly accurate and scholarly nature of the Lámaist translations of Sanskrit Buddhist books;" and he again observes: "It is clear that the Tantric and Maháyána features of Lámaism were imported \*en bloc\* from Indian Buddhism."—Journal of the Royal As. Soc. for 1894, p. 15. _First 163 of 574 passages. 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[Candrikā (fragments)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.art.alamkara.dhvani.dhvanyaloka!candrika*fragments) — Sanskrit - [Mahābhārata](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.mahabharata.vyasa) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.sanskrit.mahayanasutra.saddharmapundarika) — Sanskrit - [Vinayapiṭaka](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.theravada.vp) — Pāli - [Bhagavaduṣṇīṣamahā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.sanskrit.mahayanasutra.samadhi.bhagavadusnisamaha) — Sanskrit - [Kāmasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.kama.vatsyayana) — Vātsyāyana Mallanāga, Sanskrit - [Pauliśasiddhānta](https://indike.org/pramana/in.astro.siddhanta.early.paulisa) — Sanskrit - [Prajñāpāramitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.sanskrit.prajnaparamita) — Sanskrit - [Romakasiddhānta](https://indike.org/pramana/in.astro.siddhanta.early.romaka) — Sanskrit - [Mahāyānasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.sanskrit.mahayanasutra) — Sanskrit - [Kubjikāmata](https://indike.org/pramana/in.sampradaya.saiva.agama.kubjika) — Sanskrit - [Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.sanskrit.prajnaparamita.vajracchedika) — Sanskrit - [Sukhāvatīvyūha (larger)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.sanskrit.mahayanasutra.sukhavativyuha) — Sanskrit - [Śatapathabrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.satapatha) — Yājñavalkya & Śāṇḍilya (Vedic teacher), Sanskrit - [Ratnākara](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.sanskrit.mahayanasutra.paripriccha.ratnakara) — Sanskrit - [Uṣṇīṣacakravartitantrasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.sanskrit.dharani.buddha.usnisacakravartitantrasutra) — Sanskrit - [Pāṭaliputra](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.pataliputra) - [Nālandā](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.nalanda) - [Dambal](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.dambal) - [Vijayanagara](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.vijayanagara) - [Yogaratnākara (Mayūrapāda Bhikṣu)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.yoga.yogaratnakara-mayurapada-bhiksu) — Mayūrapāda Bhikṣu 1700, Sanskrit - [Śārṅgadharapaddhati](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.subhasita.subhasita.kosa.sarngadharapaddhati) — Śārṅgadhara, Sanskrit - [Rasendrasārasaṃgraha (Gopāla Kṛṣṇā)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.rasa.cikitsa.rasendrasarasamgraha) — Gopāla Kṛṣṇā 1800, Sanskrit - [Rasakaumudī (Śrīkaṇtha Dīkṣita)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.rasa.rasakaumudi) — Śrīkaṇtha Dīkṣita 1600, Sanskrit - [Arkaprakāśa (Rāvaṇapaṇḍita)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.cikitsa.kalpana.arkaprakasa) — Rāvaṇapaṇḍita 1600, Sanskrit - [Pañcasiddhāntikā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.astro.siddhanta.early.pancasiddhantika) — Varāhamihira, Sanskrit - [Ātmatattvaviveka](https://indike.org/pramana/in.darsana.nyaya.atmatattvaviveka) — Udayana, Sanskrit - [Rasahṛdaya](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.rasa.parada.rasahrdaya) — Govinda, Sanskrit - [Rasaratnadīpikā (Allarāja)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.art.alamkara.rasa.rasaratnadipika-allaraja) — Allarāja, Sanskrit - [Kakṣapuṭatantra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.sampradaya.general.kamya.kaksaputa) — Sanskrit - [Rasapradīpa (Śaṅkara Bhaṭṭa)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.rasa.rasapradipa) — Śaṅkara Bhaṭṭa, Sanskrit --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32) · Pramāṇa