[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Science, technology and education](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science) › [A History of Hindu Chemistry from the Earliest Times to the Middle of the Sixteenth Century A.D.](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902) › v2 # A History of Hindu Chemistry from the Earliest Times to the Middle of the Sixteenth Century A.D. v2: Volume 2 A History of Hindu Chemistry from the Earliest Times to the Middle of the Sixteenth Century A.D. v2 - **Language:** English ## Contents - [v2.c26 Front matter](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c26) — 5 parts - [v2.c27 Select Opinions on Vol. I](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c27) — 19 parts - [v2.c28 Preface](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c28) — 12 parts - [v2.c29 Preliminary Remarks on the Mechanical, Physical and Chemical Theories of the Ancient Hindus](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c29) — 4 parts - [v2.c30 Contents](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c30) — 4 parts - [v2.c31 Chapter III](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c31) — 4 parts - [v2.c32 Chapter VI](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32) — 194 parts - [v2.c33 General and Concluding Remarks](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c33) — 26 parts - [v2.c34 The Mechanical, Physical and Chemical Theories of the Ancient Hindus](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c34) — 358 parts - [v2.c35 Appendix (by Principal Brajendranath Seal)](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c35) — 225 parts ### Volume 2 ### Front matter ### [v2.c26.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c26.1) This image appears to be a blank or solid black page (likely a book cover or endpaper) with no text to transcribe. ### [v2.c26.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c26.3) \*Ex Libris\* No. 66 ### [v2.c26.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c26.4) SIR WILLIAM CROOKES, D.Sc., F.R.S.. ### [v2.c26.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c26.5) \*History of Hindu Chemistry.\* By PRAPHULLA CHANDRA RAY, D.Sc., Ph.D. Vol. II. Calcutta: The Bengal Chemical and Pharmaceutical Works, Ltd. London: Williams and Norgate. 1909. ### [v2.c26.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c26.6) POSSIBLY in order to appreciate fully this history of Hindu Chemistry the reader would have to possess a knowledge of Sanskrit, but even the uninitiated will readily see that the work possesses unusual interest. It contains many notes on Sanskrit texts, which showed that the knowledge of science possessed by the ancient Hindus was diversified and comparatively far-reaching, and many of the original texts are reproduced. The period treated extends from about 150 A.D. to 1600. Principal Seal, of the Victoria College, Kuch Behar, has contributed to the book articles on the Mechanical, Physical, and Chemical Theories of the Ancient Hindus, and on the Scientific Methods of the Hindus. (\*C. N. 25.2.10\*) ### Select Opinions on Vol. I ### [v2.c27.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c27.1) I consider that the work is a most interesting and valuable contribution to chemical History; and exhibits an amount of learning and research which does the author the greatest credit.—\*Sir Henry E. Roscoe.\* ### [v2.c27.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c27.2) A new and interesting chapter has been added to the history of sciences and of human progress.—\*M. Berthelot.\* ### [v2.c27.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c27.3) Dr. Ray has spared no pains to make his work a masterpiece of its kind.—\*The Pioneer.\* ### [v2.c27.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c27.4) Dr. Ray has ably carried out his task.—\*Nature.\* ### [v2.c27.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c27.5) That unusually interesting work.—\*Pharmaceutical Post. (Vienna)\* ### [v2.c27.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c27.6) We doubt if one more eminently qualified than Professor Ray could be found for the difficult task of sifting such evidences, and eliciting from them an intelligible and orderly account of the development of Indian Chemistry.—\*The Times of India.\* ### [v2.c27.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c27.7) This Pioneer work is a monumental labour of love.—\*The Englishman.\* ### [v2.c27.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c27.8) This image is extremely faint and appears to be a scan of a page with very low contrast or a blank/washed-out page. There is no legible text to transcribe. ### [v2.c27.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c27.9) Messrs. WILLIAMS & NORGATE have pleasure in sending an early copy of the accompanying PUBLICATION FOR REVIEW, and they would be obliged if a copy of the paper containing a review thereof could be sent them addressed to P Dept. ### [v2.c27.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c27.10) The Price is . . . . . 10/6net ### [v2.c27.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c27.11) 14, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON, W.C. ### [v2.c27.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c27.12) FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE MIDDLE OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. ### [v2.c27.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c27.13) WITH SANSKRIT TEXTS, VARIANTS, TRANSLATION AND ILLUSTRATIONS ### [v2.c27.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c27.14) BY PRAPHULLA CHANDRA RAY, D. Sc., Ph. D., Professor of Chemistry, Presidency College, Calcutta ### [v2.c27.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c27.15) VOL. II ### [v2.c27.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c27.16) CALCUTTA THE BENGAL CHEMICAL & PHARMACEUTICAL WORKS, LIMITED ### [v2.c27.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c27.17) London : WILLIAMS AND NORGATE ### [v2.c27.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c27.18) CALCUTTA PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY N. N. PALIT AT THE BENGAL CHEMICAL STEAM PRINTING WORKS, 82, Maniktala Main Road. ### [v2.c27.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c27.19) To the Memory of M. P. E. BERTHELOT I dedicate this volume of the History of Hindu Chemistry. ### Preface ### [v2.c28.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c28.1) The second and concluding volume of the \*History of Hindu Chemistry\* is now presented to the public. ### [v2.c28.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c28.2) When the first volume was under preparation, it was feared that many valuable works on Hindu Chemistry referred to in \*Rasārnava\*, \*Rasaratnasamuchchaya\*, etc., had been lost for ever. Pandit Navakānta Kavibhūshana was deputed to Benares to make a searching enquiry and his labours have been rewarded by the discovery of several rare MSS., including one of \*Rasahridaya\*. This last-named work is of surpassing interest considering its comprehensiveness and antiquity. Two more transcripts of it have also been procured from the Libraries of the India Office, London, and of the Darbár, Nepal. A copy of \*Rasendrachūdāmani\* obtained from the Library of the Deccan College, Poona, has also been of signal help. A critical study of the new materials throws a flood of light on the dark recesses of the history of Indian Chemistry. As a halo of literary and scientific activity including the pursuit of alchemy circles round the prominent figure of Nágárjuna, considerable space has been devoted to a discussion of his age in the Historical Introduction. ### [v2.c28.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c28.3) It was with diffidence and hesitation that I placed the remotest limit of alchemical \*Tantras\* in the 12th century A. D. It now transpires that this date is to be pushed back by several centuries. ### [v2.c28.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c28.4) A \*History of Hindu Chemistry\* would be rightly regarded as incomplete which did not deal with the constitution of matter and the various hypotheses in regard to it. The European historian of chemistry has always turned his eyes to Greece as the perennial fountain of knowledge on this as on other subjects. And it is but natural that he should do so.\[\*\] The Hindu atomistic school has not hitherto, I am afraid, found an interpreter who could do full justice to it. Colebrooke's presentation of it with which I had to content myself in the first volume is masterly so far as it goes, but is fragmentary. Not feeling myself equal to the task I applied for help to Mr. Brajendra Náth Seal, Principal, Victoria College, Kuch Behar. Principal Seal has kindly responded to my appeal with alacrity. It is to be hoped that a long-felt \*desideratum\* has at last been supplied. ### [v2.c28.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c28.5) The frequent references which have been made to the first volume must be taken to mean the second edition of it. Those who happen to possess copies of the first edition will not, however, be put to any serious inconvenience. ### [v2.c28.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c28.6) ∗ Vide Vol. I, Intro. xliii. ### [v2.c28.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c28.7) I avail myself of this opportunity to express my cordial thanks to Pandit Harischandra Kaviratna, late Professor of Sanskrit, Presidency College, and my collaborator in the editing of the text of Rasārnava in the \*Bibliotheca Indica\* series. ### [v2.c28.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c28.8) In the preface to the first volume I presumed to narrate the circumstances under which I undertook the composition of my History. The great chemist and savant, whose inspiration has been my guiding principle throughout the arduous task and whose lengthy and appreciative review of the first instalment has been a stimulus in the continuation of it, is no more. Marcellin Berthelot breathed his last on March 18, 1907, leaving the world of science poor indeed. It was with the view of coming into personal contact with the illustrious scientist that the author made a pilgrimage to Paris in March, 1905. The long interview which he had with M. Berthelot and the reception which was accorded to him at a meeting of the Academy of Sciences by its late Perpetual Secretary, as also by its President, M. Troost, made a deep and lasting impression on his mind. ### [v2.c28.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c28.9) Alas, for the vanity of human wishes! These pages will no longer be greeted by the eager and indulgent eyes of M. Berthelot. All that now remains for me is to dedicate this volume to his sacred memory. ### [v2.c28.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c28.10) It is with mingled feelings that I mark the hour of my final deliverance from a self-imposed task which has occupied all my spare time during the last 15 years and more—feelings not unlike those which overpowered the Historian of the Roman Empire. The reader will, I hope, forgive me if I venture to give expression to them in the words of Edmund Gibbon himself. "I will not dissemble the first emotions of joy on the recovery of my freedom. \* \* \* \* But my pride was soon humbled, and a sober melancholy was spread over my mind, by the idea that I had taken an everlasting leave of an old and agreeable companion." ### [v2.c28.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c28.11) The Hindu nation with its glorious past and vast latent potentialities may yet look forward to a still more glorious future, and, if the perusal of these pages will have the effect of stimulating my countrymen to strive for regaining their old position in the intellectual hierarchy of nations, I shall not have laboured in vain. ### [v2.c28.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c28.12) PRESIDENCY COLLEGE. \*June 1, 1909.\* } \*\*P. C. RAY.\*\* ### Preliminary Remarks on the Mechanical, Physical and Chemical Theories of the Ancient Hindus ### [v2.c29.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c29.1) My paper on the \*Mechanical, Physical and Chemical Theories of the Ancient Hindus\* is intended to be a synoptic view of the entire field of Hindu Physico-chemical Science, so far as this reached the stage of positive Science as distinguished from the prior mythological and empirical stages. As the work in which my paper appears relates to Hindu Chemistry, I have elaborated the chemical portions, including the Hindu account of the constitution of the fats and oils, and the organic tissues, in addition to Hindu inorganic chemistry. I have also briefly noticed the chief chemical industries of the Hindus which secured them an easy pre-eminence in manufactures for a thousand years, and, in the \*Addenda\*, given some interesting recipes relating to several matters of chemical technology. Of mechanico-physical theories, I have expounded the Hindu conception of Energy, potential as well as kinetic, and of molecular motion, so far as they are applied to the elucidation of problems of a physico-chemical nature, \*viz.\*, the constitution of matter, the genesis of atoms and their infra-atomic constituents, and the chain of mechanical causation in the system of Nature. I have also touched on the Hindu theories of light, heat and sound, as implying current or wave motion, leaving the elaborate exposition to my paper on Hindu Mechanics and Physics. In the \*Appendix\*, I have added a brief account of the Scientific Method of the Hindus, which shows that all this was not a mass of unverified and unverifiable speculation (the very antipodes of science),—the charge usually brought against Hindu thought and culture,—but professed to be the outcome of a Scientific Methodology which, in its formulation of the canons of the two fundamental Inductive Methods, is more comprehensive as well as more original and suggestive than Mill, and which, as regards its Applied Logic of the Sciences, (\*e. g.\*, the Logic of Therapeutics, of Grammar \*etc.\*), is a standing testimony to the systematic completeness and rigour of the Hindu scientific mind. The difficulties of my task have been formidable, but I have not written one line which is not supported by the clearest and most authoritative texts. The ground trodden is, for the most part, absolutely new. I have gone back to the \*origines\*, and studied the authorities at first hand, being resolved to eschew all second-hand sources of imformation. Fortunately, the Sanskrit philosophico-scientific terminology, however difficult from its technical character, is exceedingly precise, consistent and expressive. The materials also are full, and the sources of information corroborate one another. Another difficulty I have sought to guard myself against is the unscientific, unhistorical but very common and almost inevitable habit of reading modern ideas into old guesses or speculations of a happy-go-lucky or nebulous character. I do not think that the mere passion for Truth is a sufficient safeguard against this fatal facility of unconscious distortion or misrepresentation. A true historical perspective can only be acquired by historico-comparative studies, with the application of the correct historico-comparative method (\*vide\* the Introduction to my Comparative Studies in Vaishnavism and Christianity). I have also practised, or tried to practise, a habitual understatement, without consciously falling into that ‘\*suppressio veri\*’ which is so often a ‘\*suggestio falsi\*.’ How far I have succeeded in exhibiting the truth about Hindu science or the Hindu scientific mind is a question which I leave to competent judges to answer. ### [v2.c29.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c29.2) Before concluding, I must advert to my use of the terms “isomeric” and “polymeric” in senses different from the current ones, though suggested by the principle of analogous extension. Instead of coining new terms, I adopted (perhaps with a questionable freedom) these existing ones to express the Hindu idea of distinctions of chemical substances due merely to difference in spatial position or arrangement among the particles, without any implications whatever as to percentage composition or molecular weight. A study of the original sources has made it clear to me that a "Bhúta" in Hindu Chemistry represents a class of elements composed of similar atoms, and the different elementary substances comprised under one and the same "Bhúta" are 'isomers', in this limited sense, in reference to the atoms, being specifically constituted by differences of spatial position and arrangement among the latter. This is true of the Sánkhya-Pátañjala and the Nyáya-Vaiseshika alike. But, in the Sánkhya-Pátañjala, the atoms themselves are composed of Tanmátras; and in one view, the atoms that enter into the "isomeric" modes of the same "Bhúta" are themselves "stereo-isomers" in reference to the Tanmátras. A tri-Tanmátric atom, for example, may have different isomeric forms which would account for the divers modes of the "Bhúta" originating with this class of atoms. Hence under the Sánkhya Pátañjala, I speak of "isomeric" atoms, while under the Nyáya-Vaiseshika I confine myself to the phrase "isomeric modes of the same Bhúta". It appears to me also that in the Sánkhya-Pátañjala view, while an atom of a particular kind (say a tri-Tanmátric or a tetra-Tanmátric one) may have "isomeric" forms of its own, the atoms of the different “Bhúta” classes (from the mono-Tanmátric to the penta-Tanmátric) are what may in a broad sense be termed polymers of the Ákása Tanmátra and Bhutadi (matter-rudiment). Under the Sánkhya-Pátanjala, therefore, I have spoken of “polymeric” atoms and “polymeric” combinations of these, though I must confess that I have done so with great diffidence and hesitation. ### [v2.c29.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c29.3) VICTORIA COLLEGE, COOCH BEHAR. 23rd May, 1909. } B. N. SEAL. ### [v2.c29.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c29.4) B N SEAL ### Contents ### [v2.c30.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c30.1) ON THE AGE OF NA'GA'RJUNA AND BUDDHIST ALCHEMICAL TANTRAS ### [v2.c30.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c30.2) Rise, Development and Propagation of Maha'ya'nism—Na'ga'rjuna: a Leading Representative of Maha'ya'nism—Na'ga'rjuna as an Adept in Magic and A'lchemy—Na'ga'rjuna as a Contemporary and Friend of King Sadva'hana—Na'ga'rjuna as a Comprehensive Name of the Activity of Maha'ya'nism—Asamga—Gradual and Imperceptible Fusion of Maha'ya'nism with Saivaism—Dha'ranis as the Precursors of the Tantras—Vaipulya Su'tras—Buddhistic Tantras—Tantras imported into Tibet—Rasaratna'kara—Its Historical Importance—Also a Typical Production of the Maha'ya'nist Period of Intellectual Activity—Antiquity of Alchemical Tantras—Alchemy an Integral Part of Maha'ya'nist Activity—Spread of Alchemy—In Tibet and the Deccan ... i-xlix ### [v2.c30.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c30.3) CHAPTER II ### [v2.c30.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c30.4) Further Cultivation of Alchemy—Buddhist Alchemical Tantras absorbed into Hindu Tantras—Rasahridaya—Rasendrachu'da'mani—Rasapraka'sasudha'kara—Rasakalpa—Rasara'jalakshmi . . . . . I-lx ### Chapter III ### [v2.c31.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c31.1) \*(Circa 1350 A.D.)\* ### [v2.c31.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c31.2) Rasaratna'kara by Nityana'tha—Rasendrachinta'mani—Rasasa'ra—Sa'rngadhara-samgraha—Rasendrasa'rasamgraha—Rasendrakalpadruma—Dha'turatnama'la' ... lxi-lxxv ### [v2.c31.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c31.3) \*Modern Period (1500-1600 A. D.)\* Rasadípa—Rasakaumudí—Bha'vapraka'sa—Arkapraka'sa lxxvi-lxxxii ### [v2.c31.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c31.4) INDIGENOUS ORIGIN OF INDIAN ALCHEMY lxxxiii-xciii ### Chapter VI ### [v2.c32.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.1) SOME NOTED INDIAN ALCHEMISTS AND THEIR WORKS xciv-xcvi ### [v2.c32.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.2) \*THE TANTRIC PERIOD\* \*(CONTINUED FROM VOL. I.)\* ### [v2.c32.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.3) CHEMISTRY IN RASARATNA'KARA OF NA'GA'R- JUNA 1-9 ### [v2.c32.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.4) CHEMISTRY IN RASAHRIDAYA OF BHIKSHU GOVINDA 9-12 ### [v2.c32.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.5) CHEMISTRY IN KA'KACHANDESVARI'MATA TANTRA 12-13 ### [v2.c32.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.6) CHEMISTRY IN RASENDRACHU'DA'MANI OF SOMADEVA 14-16 ### [v2.c32.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.7) CHEMISTRY IN RASAPRAKA'SA-SUDHA'KARA OF YASODHARA 16-18 ### [v2.c32.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.8) CHEMISTRY IN RASACHINTA'MANI OF MADA- NA'NTA DEVA 18-19 ### [v2.c32.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.9) CHEMISTRY IN RASAKALPA (RUDRAYA'MALA TANTRA) 19-22 ### [v2.c32.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.10) CHEMISTRY IN RASARĀJALAKSHMĪ OF VISHNUDEVA 22 ### [v2.c32.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.11) CHEMISTRY IN RASANAKSHATRAMĀLIKĀ OF MATHANASIMHA, PHYSICIAN TO THE KING OF MALWA 22-23 ### [v2.c32.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.12) CHEMISTRY IN RASARATNĀKARA OF NITYANĀTHA 23 ### [v2.c32.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.13) CHEMISTRY IN DHĀTURATNAMĀLĀ 23 ### [v2.c32.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.14) CHEMISTRY IN RASAPRADĪPA 24 ### [v2.c32.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.15) CHEMISTRY IN DHĀTUKRIYĀ OR DHĀTUMANJARĪ (RUDRAYĀMALA TANTRA) 24-27 ### [v2.c32.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.16) CHEMISTRY IN SUVARNATANTRA OR SVARNATANTRA 28-29 ### [v2.c32.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.17) KNOWLEDGE OF GEMS Relative weight—Hardness—Lustre, Transparency, Colour and other Optical Properties—Fusibility—General and Concluding Remarks 30-41 ### [v2.c32.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.18) NOTE ON THE METHOD OF PREPARING CAUSTIC ALKALI 42-43 ### [v2.c32.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.19) THE TANTRISTS, THE ROSICRUCIANS AND THE SEEKERS AFTER TRUTH 44-49 ### [v2.c32.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.20) THE METALS AND THEIR LOSS IN WEIGHT AFTFR CALCINATION 51-53 ### [v2.c32.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.21) ANTIMONY 54 ### [v2.c32.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.22) THE PREPARATION KNOWN AS SVARNASINDŪRA OR MAKARADHVAJA 55-57 ### [v2.c32.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.23) IDENTIFICATION OF METALS BY THEIR COLOURATION OF FLAMES 57 ### [v2.c32.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.24) THE AGE OF BHIKSHU GOVINDA, THE AUTHOR OF RASAHṚDAYA 57-58 ### [v2.c32.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.25) THE MECHANICAL, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL THEORIES OF THE ANCIENT HINDUS. ### [v2.c32.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.26) The Sa'nkhya-Pa'tanjala System ### [v2.c32.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.27) Prakriti, the Ultimate Ground—The Original Constituents and their Interaction—The Starting Point—Beginning of Evolution— Formation of Wholes or Systems—Collocation of Reals—The Formula of Evolution—The Conservation of Energy (and of Mass)—The Transformation of Energy—The Doctrine of Causation a Corollary from the Conservation and Transformation of Energy—The Principle of Collocation—The Storing-up and the Liberation of Energy—Chain of Causation—Fixed Order—Time, Space and the Causal Series—Space as Extension and Space as Position—The Causal Series—The Dissipation of Energy ( and of Mass)—Their Dissolution into the Formless Prakriti—The Evolution of Matter—The Genesis of the Infra-atomic Unit-potentials and of the Atoms—Cosmo-genesis, a Bird's-eye View—Chemical Analysis and Synthesis—Elements and Compounds 59-124 ### [v2.c32.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.28) Chemistry in the Medical Schools of Ancient India ### [v2.c32.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.29) Physical Characters of the Bhútas—The Maha'-Bhu'tas—Mechanical Mixtures—Qualities of Compounds—The extant Charaka and Susruta—Succession of Medical Authorities—Preparation of Chemical Compounds—Chemical Compositions and Decompositions—Organic Compounds—Poisons—Fœtal Development ( after Susruta )—Chemistry of Digestion—Formation of Molecular Qualities in Chemical Compounds—Chemistry of Colours—Parina'ma-va'da versus A'rambha-va'da 124-158 ### [v2.c32.30](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.30) \*Weights and Measures\* ### [v2.c32.31](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.31) Measures of Time and Space—Bha'skara'cha'ryya, a Precursor of Newton in the Conception of the Differential Calculus and its Application to Astronomy—Measures of Weight and Capacity—Size of the Minimum Visibile (Atom) 158-168 ### [v2.c32.32](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.32) \*Vedantic System\* ### [v2.c32.33](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.33) Ma'ya'—Evolution of Different Forms of Matter—Panchí-karana 168—176 ### [v2.c32.34](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.34) \*The Atomic Theory of the Buddhists\* 177-178 ### [v2.c32.35](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.35) \*The Atomic Theory of the Jains\* ### [v2.c32.36](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.36) General Properties of Matter—Atomic Linking 178-185 ### [v2.c32.37](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.37) \*The Nya'ya-Vaiseshika Chemical Theory\* ### [v2.c32.38](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.38) Theory of Atomic Combination—Chemical Combination—Mono-Bhautic Compounds - Hetero-Bhautic Compounds—The Theory of Dynamic Contact (Vishtambha)—Oils, Fats, Milks—Mixtures like Soups, Solutions, etc.-- Chemical Action and Heat—Light Rays—Theory of Reflection, Refraction etc.-- Arrangement of Atoms in Space—The Foundations of Solid Co-ordinate Geometry—Three Axes of Va'chaspati - Graphic Representation of the Constitution of a Bi-Bhautic Compound (with "complex contact") 185-215 ### [v2.c32.39](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.39) \*Conception of Molecular Motion (Parispanda)\* ### [v2.c32.40](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.40) Parispanda—Gati-Santa'na—Current and Wave Motion—Vibrations and Waves of Water—Sound-Waves—Different Views of their Nature—Rays of Light 215-221 ### [v2.c32.41](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.41) THE DATE OF RASARATNASAMUCHCHAYA 222-223 ### [v2.c32.42](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.42) THE WEIGHT OF AIR (\*By Principal B. N. Seal\*) 223-224 ### [v2.c32.43](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.43) APPENDIX ### [v2.c32.44](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.44) THE HINDU DOCTRINE OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD ### [v2.c32.45](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.45) Doctrine of Scientific Method—Test of Truth—Perception—Observation and Experiment—Results in the Different Sciences—Fallacies of Observation—Doctrine of Inference—The Cha'rva'ka View—The Buddhists, their Analysis and Vindication of Inference—Causality and Identity of Essence—How to ascertain Concomitance—Specific Cause and Specific Effect—Canon of the Method of Subtraction—The Joint Method of Difference (Panchaka'rani)—Proof of the Method—Doubt and its limits—The Nya'ya Doctrine of Inference—Definition of a Cause—Unconditional Antecedent—The Doctrine of Anyatha'-siddha—Elimination of the Irrelevent Factors—Nya'ya objection to the Method of Difference—The Nya'ya analysis of the Causal Relation Continued—Co-effects—Synchronousness of Causes and Effects—Plurality of Causes—The Nya'ya ground of Inference—Vya'pti or Unconditional Concomitance—Ascertainment of Vya'pti—Upa'dhi—Process of disproving suspected Upadhis—Tarka or Uha—Difference between the Nya'ya Method and Mill's Joint Method of Agreement—Other Instances of Vya'pti—Relation of Causality to Vya'pti—Plurality of Causes—Scientific Methods as subsidiary to General Methodology and the Ascertainment of Truth—Hypotheses—Conditions of a Legitimate Hypothesis—Nirnaya or Verification of a Hypothesis—The Deduction Method—Navya Nya'ya and its Significance in the History of Thought—Applied Logic—The Logic of the Particular Sciences—The Scientific Methods as applied to Therapeutics—The Scientific Methods as applied to Grammar and Philology—Conclusion 225-284 ### [v2.c32.46](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.46) ADDENDA ### [v2.c32.47](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.47) Empirical Recipes of Chemical Technology ### [v2.c32.48](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.48) Searing of Rocks—Hardening of Steel—Preparation of Cements—Nourishment of Plants 285-290 ### [v2.c32.49](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.49) ERRATA ### [v2.c32.50](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.50) SANSKRIT TEXTS ### [v2.c32.51](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.51) Extracts from Rasaratna´kara 3-17 ### [v2.c32.52](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.52) Extracts from Rasahridaya 18-41 ### [v2.c32.53](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.53) Extracts from Ka´kachandesvari´mata Tantra 42-50 ### [v2.c32.54](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.54) Extracts from Rasendrachu´da´mani 51-56 ### [v2.c32.55](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.55) Extracts from Rasapraka´sasudha´kara 57-67 ### [v2.c32.56](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.56) Extracts from Rasachinta´mani 68-71 ### [v2.c32.57](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.57) Extracts from Rasakalpa 72-79 ### [v2.c32.58](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.58) Extracts from Rasara´jalakshmi 79-82 ### [v2.c32.59](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.59) Extracts from Rasanakshatrama´lika´ 82-83 ### [v2.c32.60](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.60) Extracts from Rasaratna´kara 84-86 ### [v2.c32.61](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.61) Extracts from Dha´turatnama´la´ 86-89 ### [v2.c32.62](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.62) Extracts from Rasapradi´pa 90-94 ### [v2.c32.63](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.63) Extracts from Dha´tukriya´ or Dha´tu-manjari 95-146 ### [v2.c32.64](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.64) Extracts from Suvarnatantra or Svarnatantra 147-152 ### [v2.c32.65](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.65) INDEX ### [v2.c32.66](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.66) Index of Proper Names The provided image is a blank, yellowed page. There is no text or content to transcribe. ### [v2.c32.67](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.67) On the age of Nagarjuna and the Buddhist Alchemical Tantras. ### [v2.c32.68](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.68) Rise, development and propagation of Maháyánism. ### [v2.c32.69](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.69) IN the first Volume it has been incidentally mentioned that side by side with the Sivaite Tantras we have their Buddhist counterparts in which the salient features of the former appear.\* The question now arises : when did the votaries of the religion of Sákyamuni find themselves called upon to engraft upon their simple and pure creed the ensemble of the gross and grotesque superstitions, the hideous incantations, as also the speculative, the metaphysical and esoteric phases of spiritual aspirations of which the Tantras are the repositories? The answer cannot be given off hand in a few words, for it will lead us to a discussion of the origin and development of Maháyánism. Under ordinary circumstances we should have considered it beside our purpose to devote much space to this subject in a work dealing with the history of chemistry. But it so happens that the most prominent figure in Indian alchemy, who is acknowledged on all hands to be the discoverer of the processes of distillation, sublimation etc., is no other than the reputed founder of the Mádhyamika system of philosophy, the renowned Nágárjuna. A brief and rapid survey of the causes which led to the origin of Maháyánism and its intimate connection with the tenets of the Sivaite cult will be of help to us. ### [v2.c32.70](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.70) ∗ Vol. i, Intro. lxx. ### [v2.c32.71](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.71) It is one of the saddest episodes in the history of the great religions of the world that the purity of life, right conduct, right living—in short, the moral code upon which their founders have always laid particular stress, soon begin to occupy a subordinate position and a dogmatic theology springs up in time, which gives occupation to the subtlest intellect. ### [v2.c32.72](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.72) As for the masses of the people it is doubtful if ever they have remained contented with the mere ethical aspect of a religion. At any rate we find that immediately after the tidings of the death of Buddha had spread about there was a squabble among his followers for the possession of the master's corporeal relics and in course of time stūpas were raised over them, which no less than the three jewels (\*Ratnatraya\*)—the Buddha, the Dharma and the Samgha,—and the Bodhi-tree became objects of worship of the devotee. The Chaityas, Viháras and other sanctuaries of divers sorts, with which Buddhistic India was dotted over in the first and second centuries after the decease of the great Teacher, afforded asylums for a vast multitude of monks, who, freed from all worldly cares, found ample leisure to formulate and draw up a code of spiritual and disciplinary exercises. ### [v2.c32.73](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.73) Although their high ideal was "to lead sweet lives of purest chastity" and induce their lay brethren to follow in their footsteps, rituals and ceremonials of an imposing and elaborate character soon obscured the ray of light which shone forth from the founder. Thus we find that within 150 years after the passing away of Buddha tedious and circumstantial regulations as to the quality of robes to be worn by the Bhikshus, the mode of bathing and fasting, the taking of the midday meal, the drinking of unchurned milk, probation and penance, dwellings and furniture and so forth were amongst the weighty subjects for discussion in the Second General Council.\* We need not pursue the subject further. The reader who is interested in the study of comparative religions will find striking parallels in the early history of the Christian Church. † ### [v2.c32.74](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.74) \[^ \*\]: "On the daily Life of the Bhikshus." Vinaya Texts (S. B. E. Series). The Chullavagga, Pt. iii, p. 66. \[^ †\]: The Sermon on the Mount was more or less forgotten. Idolatry disappeared, it is true, but only to re-appear in the shape of Mariolatry and the worship of Saints and relics. In the heat of the schismatic strifes, Christian Charity had to make shift for itself as best as it could. Theologians were busy with the interpretation of the writings of the fathers. In a word, the dogmatic to a large extent superseded the moral element of religion. ### [v2.c32.75](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.75) We are not concerned here with tracing the rise, progress or decline of Buddhism; if we have at all referred to its excrescences, it is only to prepare the mind of the reader for the proper understanding of the Maháyánist development. ### [v2.c32.76](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.76) The India of Asoka and of the fourth and third centuries B. C. was in the main Buddhist, but it should not for a moment be supposed that the old faith was extinct. The triumph and ascendancy of the teachings of Sákyamuni and his followers were due in a large measure to the fact that they drew upon, and incorporated into, their creed much that was essentially of Hindu origin.\[\*\] As Dr. Bhándárkar observes :— ### [v2.c32.77](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.77) ∗ Prof. Rhys Davids expresses the same views in several places :—" There is ample evidence even in the books of the orthodox body of Brahman teachers to show that when Buddhism arose there was not only much discussion of the ultimate problems of life, and a keen interest in the result, but also that there was a quite unusually open field for all sorts of speculations."—"Buddhism." American Lectures on the History of Religions (1896), p. 26. Again : " But Buddhism is essentially an Indian system. The Buddha himself was, ### [v2.c32.78](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.78) “But it was not the metaphysical doctrines of Buddhism that influenced the masses of the people. What proved attractive was its ethical side. The Buddhist preachers discoursed on Dharma or righteousness to the people. Such discourses on Dharma without the introduction of any theistic idea have their representatives in the Brahmanic literature. In many of the episodes of the Mahábhárata especially in the Sánti and Anusásanika books we have ### [v2.c32.79](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.79) throughout his career, a characteristic Indian . . . . . he was the greatest and wisest and best of Hindus.”—ibid, p. 117. The same high authority puts it more tersely when he says: “This is partly, no doubt, because we call them Buddhists, and imagine them, therefore, to belong to a separate class, quite distinct from other Indians of that stock. The Buddhists were, as a matter of fact, characteristically and distinctly Indian.”—“Buddhist India,” p. 165. Cf. “Buddhism, in fact, may be regarded as a reformed phase of Hindu religion and ethical activity. The Buddhistic doctrine of the vanity of the world had been thoroughly disseminated by Yájnavalkya (in the Satapatha Bráhmana) and with it the practice of subsistence upon alms as Pravrájaka or Bhikshu; and a fruitful soil had thereby been prepared for Buddhism.” Weber’s “Hist. Sans. Lit.” trans. 3rd Ed. (1892) p. 285. Again “This teaching contains, in itself, absolutely nothing new; on the contrary, it is essentially identical with the corresponding Brahminical doctrine; only the fashion in which Buddha proclaimed and disseminated it was something altogether novel and unwonted.”—ibid, p. 289. ### [v2.c32.80](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.80) simply ethical discourses without any reference to God, of the nature of those we find in the Buddhist works; and sometimes the verses in the Mahābhárata are the same as those occurring in the latter. There appears to be at one time a period in which the thoughts of the Hindus were directed to the delineation of the right conduct in itself without any theistic learning. And Buddhism on its ethical scale represents that phase. Right conduct is the last of the four noble truths of Buddhism.” ### [v2.c32.81](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.81) “It was this phase of Buddhism that with the strenuous efforts of the missionaries and of the Emperor Asoka enables it to achieve success amongst the masses of the people; and what was wanting on the theistic side was supplied by the perfection and marvellous powers attributed to the founder of the religion. Without this faith in the perfection or, what we should call the divine nature of Buddha, a mere ethical religion would probably not have succeeded. Buddhism was not a social revolution as has been thought by some writers. It was a religion established and propagated by persons who had renounced the world and professed not to care for it. From times of old there existed in the Indian community such persons who were called Sramanas and belonged originally to all castes. These gave themselves to contemplation and sometimes propounded doctrines of salvation not in harmony with the prevalent creed. Buddhism was not even a revolt against caste, for though men from all castes were admitted to the monastic order, and though in the discourses of Buddha himself and others the distinction of caste is pronounced to be entirely worthless, still the object of those who elaborated the system was not to level caste distinctions. They even left the domestic ceremonies of their followers to be performed according to the Vedic ritual. This is one of the arguments brought against Buddhism by Udayanáchárya. "There does not exist," he says, "a sect, the followers of which do not perform the Vedic rites beginning with Garbhádhána and ending with the funeral, even though they regard them as having relative or tentative truth."\* Buddhism, however, was a revolt against the sacrificial system and denied the authority of the Vedas as calculated to point out the path to salvation. And this is the root of the hostility between itself and Brahmanism.”\* ### [v2.c32.82](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.82) ∗ नास्त्येत तद्दर्शनं यत्र सांवतमेतदित्युक्तापि गर्भाधानाद्यन्त्येष्टि पर्यन्तां वैदिकों क्रियां जनो नानुतिष्ठति । Atmatattvaviveka, Calc. Ed. of Samvat 1906, p. 19, सांवत relating to संवृति, a Buddhist technical term. ### [v2.c32.83](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.83) The zealous missionaries of Buddhism captured the heart of the masses by appealing to their moral instincts. Persuasion and not persecution was the instrument they chose to wield. King Asoka proclaimed universal toleration; he inculcated respect for Brahmins as well as Sramanas or ascetics of all sects. It is a relief to find that the mighty monarch had never recourse to brute force for the propagation of his creed. We are spared all the scenes of blood, rapine and violence, which disfigure the pages of religious history in the West. ### [v2.c32.84](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.84) It has already been pointed out that Buddhism itself may be looked upon as an offspring of Hinduism; nay, it is a logical outcome of the principles enunciated in the ### [v2.c32.85](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.85) \[^ \*\]: “A peep into the Early History of India from the foundation of the Maurya Dynasty to the fall of the Imperial Gupta Dynasty” (B.C. 322—Circa 500 A. D.) pp. 362-363. Journal of the Bombay branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1900), Vol. xx. No. LVI. ### [v2.c32.86](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.86) Sámkhya system of philosophy. If India so readily responded to the teachings of the new faith, it is not because she renounced Hinduism but because she found that all that was highest and noblest in the latter was absorbed in the former. The great Teacher who now arose gave only a new shape and direction and a vigorous impetus to the germ of ideas already in existence and turned them to capital account. A good deal of confusion may be avoided by bearing in mind this aspect of the question. When speaking of Buddhist India one is apt to rush to the conclusion that every vestige of Hinduism had disappeared off the face of the vast continent. As a matter of fact even during the zenith of Buddhistic glory Brahminism was rearing its head and was professed by not a few among the cultured and intellectual classes and was ready to assert itself whenever a favourable occasion arose. ### [v2.c32.87](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.87) In the second century B. C., we find the Kábul valley, the Punjab and Málava acnowledging the sway of the Princes of the Turkish race.\[\*\] Wema Kadiphses, the second of the Kushana Dynasty is spoken of as a devotee of Mahesvara; his coins bear the emblem of Nandin on the reverse, which is accompanied by a human figure which holds a trident in its right arm representing Siva.\[†\] The last three Kushanas—Kanishka, Huvishka and Vásudeva—have been noticed in the Rájataramginí,\[‡\] and the emblems on the reverse of their coins are figures of deities borrowed from the Greek, Persian and Brahminical pantheon and of Buddha. Thus the Gods of all these four religions shared the adoration of these Turkish Kings. But the figure of Buddha in the ### [v2.c32.88](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.88) \[\*\] Lassen "Indische Alterthumskunde," Vol. ii, pp. 811-13 Ed. 1874. \[†\] Ibid, pp. 808-811. \[‡\] See next page. Regarding the reliability of the account in the Rájataramginí, Dr. Stein observes :-" Kalhana's account of the reign of these kings, who are supposed to have ruled simultaneously, is brief enough, but undoubtedly preserves data of genuine historical tradition. It clearly describes them as princes of Turuska, i. e, Turkish nationality, as powerful sovereigns and as faithful patrons of the Buddhist Church. On these points the statements of sitting or meditative and the standing posture is to be found on the coins of Kanishka alone.\* ### [v2.c32.89](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.89) In the Buddhist ecclesiastical history Kanishka occupies a prominent place. It was in his reign and under his patronage that the Third Council was held to settle the canon once again. The church was convulsed by internal dissensions and schisms, resulting in its being split up into as many as 18 sects. “The most significant trait of the Third Council is that it closed a period of old quarrels between the sects ; it did not prevent the rise of new aspirations. Maháyánism, which in an incipient stage was already existing erelong, boldly raised its head.”† ### [v2.c32.90](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.90) the Chronicle are fully supported by the evidence of our most authentic records. The continued existence of the three places, Kanishkapura, Hushkapura, and Jushkapura, which are described as foundations of these kings and which still survive to the present day is likely to have assisted in preserving a recollection of their founders.” ### [v2.c32.91](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.91) ∗ Percy Gardner : “Coins of Greek and Scythic kings” pp. 129 ff. Cunningham : “Num. Chr.” 1892, pp. 63 ff. † Kern : Manual of Ind. Bud. (Grundiss d. Indo.-Arischen Phil.) p. 122. ### [v2.c32.92](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.92) Hinduism was now very much alive. After the Third Council the distinction between the Hīnayānists and the Mahāyānists became more and more accentuated. The apostles of the latter development became convinced that in order to draw into their folds the bulk of the people some sort of compromise was necessary, that orthodox Buddhism in all its rigidity must be given up. In other words, the neo-Buddhism which now sprang into existence began to absorb and assimilate the popular form of Brahminism and thus swell the ranks of its followers. A purely ethical creed has never secured a following except perhaps among a chosen few. To quote the eloquent words of the historian of "Rationalism in Europe":— ### [v2.c32.93](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.93) "There arise from time to time men who bear to the moral condition of their age much the same relations as men of genius bear to its intellectual condition. They anticipate the moral standard of a later age, cast abroad conceptions of disinterested virtue, of philanthropy, or of self-denial that seem to bear no relation to the spirit of their time, inculcate duties and suggest motives of action that ### [v2.c32.94](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.94) appear to most men altogether chimerical. Yet the magnetism of their perfection tells powerfully upon their contemporaries. An enthusiasm is kindled, a group of adherents is formed, and many are emancipated from the moral condition of their age. Yet the full effects of such a movement are but transient. The first enthusiasm dies away, surrounding circumstances resume their ascendency, the pure faith is materialised, encrusted with conceptions that are alien to its nature, dislocated, and distorted till its first features have almost disappeared. The moral teaching being unsuited to the time becomes inoperative until its appropriate civilisation has dawned, or at most it faintly and imperfectly filters through an accumulation of dogmas, and thus accelerates in some measure the arrival of the condition it requires.” Vol. i, p. 305, Ed. 1900. ### [v2.c32.95](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.95) The same historian in explaining the rapid spread of Christianity in Europe observes in another place :—“It triumphed not so much by superseding rival faiths as by absorbing and transforming them. Old systems, old rites, old images were grafted into the new belief, retaining much of their ancient character, but assuming new names and a new complexion.” ### [v2.c32.96](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.96) Among the bold spirits who took a leading part in this renovation the name of Nágárjuna stands conspicuous. The Mádhyamika system, with its axiom—\*sarvam Sunyam\*—a form of Pyrrhonism pushed to its extreme limits, which is an essential part of Maháyánism is generally ascribed to him. Northern Buddhistic literature is replete with the marvels and miracles performed by him, and tradition has invested him with superhuman powers. Hiouen 'Thsang calls him along with Deva, Asvaghosha and Kumáralabdha, "as the four suns which illumine the world."\* As early as A.D. 401-409 we find a life of Nágárjuna Bodhisattva translated into Chinese.† Táranátha has committed to writing all the floating mass of legends connected with this venerable name, but as the Tibetan monk wrote so late as the beginning of the 17th century A.D., and as nothing was too astounding for his pious credulity, we have here only nuclei of facts round which have gathered accretions of vast proportions. It is now almost a hopeless task to separate the grain from the chaff. Nevertheless we can glean certain historical data from all that have been handed down. Before proceeding further we think it proper to treat the reader to a specimen of the materials with which one has to deal. We cull the following bits from the "Life and Legends of Nágárjuna" gathered chiefly from Tibetan records including Táranátha's "History of Buddhism." ### [v2.c32.97](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.97) ∗ Julien's texts, Vol. ii, p. 214. † Bun. Nanjio's Catalogue, Ap. i, No. 3. ### [v2.c32.98](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.98) Nágárjuna : a leading representative of Maháyánism. ### [v2.c32.99](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.99) "A rich Brahmin of the Vidarbha country to whom no son had been born for many years, once saw in a vision, that if he gave alms to, and entertained one hundred Brahmins, he could get a son. Accordingly he made offerings and prayers to the God and entertained one hundred Brahmins. After ten months his wife gave birth to a son. The rich man invited learned astrologers to predict the fortunes of his child; but they found that it could not live more than a week. In all other respects the child was calculated to be fortunate......... The astrologers assured them (his parents) that if they entertained one hundred Bhikshus, it would live seven years, beyond which its life could not be prolonged by any means whatever. When the seventh year was about to expire the parents were overwhelmed with grief. To avoid the painful sight of their son’s predicted death, they caused him to be removed to a certain solitary place in company with a few retainers. ### [v2.c32.100](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.100) “As the boy (Nāgārjuna) was passing his mournful days, one day the Mahābodhisattva Avalokiteswara Khasarpana visited him in disguise and advised him to go to the great monastery of Nālendra in Magadha as the surest means of escaping from the hands of death. He accordingly repaired to that famous Vihāra and arriving at the gate recited some gāthās. During that time the great sage Srī Saraha Bhadra was the high priest of Nālendra, ........... who ordained Nāgārjuna a Bhikshu of the Vihāra. \* \* \* \* During the latter part of his office the country was visited by a famine in consequence of which the monks fell into great distress. The Manager became very thoughtful about the terrible effects of the natural calamity. Distress and scarcity compelled the congregation more keenly to feel the necessity of money. The monks now determined to devise some means of acquiring treasures for the support of the famished congregation, and Nāgārjuna accordingly started on an expedition to visit an island in the great ocean where lived a great saint well versed in the art of alchemy. As the sea could not be crossed by any earthly means, he, by dint of his divine learning, got two leaves of an enchanted tree, by means of which he crossed the ocean and miraculously visited the island and presented himself before the sage who was greatly surprised to see a human being arrived at his abode deemed inaccessible to mortal beings. The sage earnestly inquired how he succeeded in achieving this wonder. Nāgārjuna replied respectfully stating to him the reasons of his visit and circumstances that brought him thither. He also showed him one of the enchanted leaves, concealing the other in his mendicant's platter. He begged him to teach the art of turning metals into gold. The sage consented to the proposal, but not liking to let the wonderful art be known in Jambudvīpa, he determined to detain him for ever in the island by depriving him of the enchanted leaf. To effect this, he said that he could not teach the art of alchemy unless Nāgārjuna consented to part with the leaf. Nāgārjuna consented, and was taught the art. When it was fully mastered, he flew towards the Indian Continent by the help of the remaining leaf. Returning to Nālendra, by means of his easily acquired wealth he supported the whole body of monks. By his religious practices he obtained Siddhi (perfection). He refuted the theories of \*Samkarāchārya\* \* and imparted religious instruction to the monks of Nālendra. ### [v2.c32.101](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.101) “Nāgārjuna returned to his country after a visit to Uttarakuru and erected many chaityas and temples, composed many works on science, medicine, astronomy and alchemy. After the death of Saraha Bhadra, the office of high priest fell upon Nāgārjuna, which he managed with great ability and indefatigable zeal. He matured the Mādhyamika philosophy which was only conceived by his illustrious teacher Saraha.” ### [v2.c32.102](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.102) “Nāgārjuna is said to have been a great friend of king De-Chye (\*Samkara\*) of S. India, whom he converted to Buddhism.”† ### [v2.c32.103](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.103) ∗ An instance of glaring anachronism. \*Samkara\* flourished in the 8th—9th century A. D. See below, foot-note to p. xxii. † S. C. Dás: Journ, As. Soc. li, Pt. i, pp. 115—120. ### [v2.c32.104](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.104) One thing seems to be clear from the above, namely, that Nágárjuna was born and brought up in the Brahminical faith but was afterwards converted to Buddhism and was celebrated as an alchemist. ### [v2.c32.105](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.105) Táranátha, it is true, completed his History in 1608 A. D.,\* but he derived his materials from Tibetan sources and the analysis of Dulva by Csoma goes to confirm this account. We have already made use of the record left us by Hiouen 'Thsang.† It is thus clear that all the testimonies concur in ascertaining Nágárjuna not only as the originator of the Mádhyamika philosophy but also as an adept in magic, conjuration and alchemy, and that even so early as the 7th century A. D. The exact time during which he flourished is a matter of controversy. He is generally regarded as a contemporary of Kanishka. One cannot go far wrong in assigning circa 150 A. D. as the date of his succeeding to the Patriarchate.∗ ### [v2.c32.106](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.106) ∗ Schiefner : Gesch. d. Bud. Pref. vi. ### [v2.c32.107](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.107) ∗ According to Lassen Nágárjuna lived about A. D. 23 during the reign of Kanishka. The Rájataramginí says : "Then there were in this land three kings called Hushka, Jushka and Kanishka, who built three towns named after them (Hushkapura, Jushkapura and Kanishkapura) . . . . . During the powerful reign of these \[kings\] the land of Kásmír was, to a great extent, in the possession of the Buddhas. At that time 150 years had passed in this terrestrial world since the blessed Sákya Simha (Buddha) had obtained complete beatitude (Nirvána).......... And a Bodhisattva lived (then) in this country as the lord of the land, namely, the glorious Nágárjuna.......... Stein's trans. Vol. I, pp. 30—31. As the tradition of the Northern Buddhists as recorded by Hiouen 'Thsang (Si-yu-ki, I. pp. 99, 151', the Tibetan Dulva (Csoma, As. Res. XX, pp. 92, 297) as also Schiefner (Tár. Gesch. d. Bud. p. 301) concur in placing the commencement of Kanishka's rule 400 years after Buddha's Nirvána, the date assigned here to Nágárjuna is rather curious. Lassen sums up his conclusion on this knotty point in these words :—" Wegen der grossen Anzahl seiner Münzen mus dem Kanishka eine ziemlich lange Regierung Zugeschrieben werden ; ich glaube daher annehmen zu durfen, das er etwa bis 40 nach Chr. G. regiert habe." Fleet maintains B. C. 57. V. Smith c. 120 A. D. While Messrs. Bhándárkar c. 278 A. D. (Journ. Bombay Br. Roy. As. Soc. Vol. XX, No. lvi, pp. 269—396) as the date of Kanishka.. ### [v2.c32.108](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.108) Nágárjuna as an adept in magic and alchemy. ### [v2.c32.109](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.109) An important document has been preserved for us in its Tibetan and Chinese versions, which seems to have an historical basis. It is in the shape of a "Friendly Epistle of Nágárjuna to king Udyana."\* ### [v2.c32.110](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.110) Nágárjuna as a contemporary and friend of king Sadváhana. The original in Sanskrit, entitled Suhrillekha, has not yet been recovered and probably been lost. Udyana in the Tibetan subscription is Bdye-Spyod=Sadváhana.† This Sadváhana is a prominent figure in the history of S. India. In ancient Sanskrit literature he is frequently spoken of as a patron of learning and there are several literary reminiscences associated with this name. ‡ ### [v2.c32.111](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.111) ∗ Vide Wenzel : Journ. Pali Text Soc. (1886), p. 1. † S. C. Dás (l. c.) says : "Nágárjuna is said to have been a great friend of king De-Chye (i. e. Samkara) of S. India, whom he converted to Buddhism." Now De-Chye=Bdye-byed according to modern pronounciation. Dás is evidently in error in rendering De-Chye as Samkara (Wenzel). ‡ Cf.—Kámasútra of Vátsyáyana. कर्तर्या कुन्तलः शातकर्णिः सातवाहनो महादेवीं मलयवतीं \[जघान\]। Referring to a "new" MS. of Harshacharita in his possession Hall remarks—"for Sáliváhana I there find Sátaváhana"—Intro. to "Vásavadattá," p. 54, This by implication would suggest that the other MS. had the reading Sáliváhana. ### [v2.c32.112](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.112) Now "the Andhrabhrityas or Sátaváhanas ruled over the Deccan from B. C. 73 to about A. D. 218, i.e. for about 3 centuries. ### [v2.c32.113](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.113) "The period during which they ruled over Maháráshtra must have been a prosperous one in the history of the country. Hence several traditions with regard to different kings have been preserved. But that Sáliváhana or Sátaváhana was a family name must have been forgotten and different princes of the dynasty have been confounded and identified. Thus Hemachandra in his Desikosha gives Sáliváhana, Sálana, Hála and Kuntala as the names of one individual." \* ### [v2.c32.114](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.114) The So-to-p’o-ho of the Chinese version of the "Friendly Epistle" has been identified with one of the Sátaváhanas or Andhra kings, possibly Yajna-Srí-Sátakarni, who seems to have reigned about 172—202 A. D. There is, therefore, nothing improbable in this particular, Sátaváhana being a contemporary of Nágárjuna. In the alchemical Tantra, "Rasaratnákara," ascribed to Nágárjuna, ### [v2.c32.115](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.115) \[^ \*\]: Bhándárkar's "Early History of the Deccan"--p. 36. ### [v2.c32.116](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.116) there is a dialogue between this sage and Sáliváhana (p. 6). We shall revert to this subject later on. ### [v2.c32.117](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.117) Numerous works have been fathered on Nágárjuna and it is an open question if any of them be genuine.\[\*\] As is well known Vyása or more properly named Vedavyása has been taken to be the compiler of not only the four Vedas but also of all the Puránas put together. Piety and credulity go hand in hand and are seldom troubled with questions of anachronism. Plato, Democritus and Geber have been held responsible for writings which appeared several centuries later. Names, venerable and illustrious, have often been pressed into service to lend weight and dignity to productions which otherwise would not have commanded a respectful hearing. On the whole we are inclined to agree ### [v2.c32.118](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.118) Nágárjuna as a comprehensive name of the activity of Maháyánism. ### [v2.c32.119](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.119) ∗ In Bunyin Nanjio's Catalogue of the Bud. Tripitaka there is a list of 24 works ascribed to Nágárjuna. The Suhrillekha was translated into Chinese in 434 A. D. App. pt. I, p. 368. ### [v2.c32.120](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.120) with Kern when he says, "The figure of Nágárjuna, so prominent in the history of the rise of Maháyánism, shows a double character. It is, on the one side, the name of an influential person, the first eminent leader of a school imbued with Hinduism and the methods of Indian scholastic philosophy. On the other hand, Nágárjuna is simply a comprehensive name of the activity of Maháyánism in the first phase of its onward course."\* ### [v2.c32.121](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.121) ∗ In Vol. I of this work (Intro. xciii), we quoted Albérúní as to the date of Nágárjuna. This cultured Arab, ordinarily a very trustworthy guide, derived his information from the Brahmins of that part of India from which every vestige of Buddhism had disappeared in the 11th century and he was evidently misled on this point as the traditions relating to Nágárjuna had at that distance of time become very vague. This will be clearly seen from what Prof. Sachau says in the preface to the Arabic edition of Albérúní. ### [v2.c32.122](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.122) "Its civilization was then essentially Brahminical as it had come to be in a protracted struggle with Buddhism. Albérúní does not know Indian Buddhism from personal experience, though it had not yet entirely withdrawn from India and in some part was still a political power. (p. v.) ### [v2.c32.123](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.123) "The valley of the Kábul river and the Punjab are all that Albérúní has seen of India. (p. xiii.) ### [v2.c32.124](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.124) "The high schools of Hindu science and learning, Kasmir and Benares, were in Albérúní's time unapproachable for Muslems. (p. xiv.)" ### [v2.c32.125](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2.c32.125) From the time of Nágárjuna onwards Maháyánism began to be tinged more and more with Brahminical bias. A notable and decided step in this direction was taken by Asamga, a monk of Gándhára, who composed the Yogáchára-bhúmisástra, in which by assimilating the doctrines of Patañjali he paved the way for the growth of the Tantras. He seems to have lived about 400 A. D.\* Vasubandhu, Asamga's younger brother, was another zealous adherent of this school and is said to have been a teacher in the college attached to the monastery of Nálendra—the “Oxford of Indian Buddhism.” From Tibetan sources we learn that the celebrated logician Dignága was a disciple of Vasubandhu, a contemporary of Lha-tho-ri, king of Tibet, who lived up to 371 A. D. \* _First 173 of 2,028 passages. 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[Rasendracintāmaṇi](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.rasa.rasendracintamani) — Ḍhuṇḍhukanātha, Sanskrit - [Rasamañjarī](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.rasa.cikitsa.rasamanjari) — Śālinātha, Sanskrit - [Gītagovinda](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.kavya.muktaka.gitagovinda) — Jayadeva, Sanskrit - [Sūryasiddhānta](https://indike.org/pramana/in.astro.siddhanta.early.suryasiddhanta) — Maya, Sanskrit - [འཕགས་པ་འཇམ་དཔལ་གྱི་རྩ་བའི་རྒྱུད](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.sanskrit.tantra.kriya.manjusrimulakalpa*bo) — Classical Tibetan - [Bhāvaprakāśa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.sangraha.bhavaprakasa) — Bhāvamiśra 1550, Sanskrit - [Harṣacarita](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.historical.harsacarita) — Bāṇabhaṭṭa, Sanskrit - [Nandī](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.sveta.cullika.1) — Devavācaka, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit - [Guhyasamājatantra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.sanskrit.tantra.yogottara.guhyasamaja) — Sanskrit - [Vāsavadattā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.novels.prasiddha.vasavadatta) — Subandhu, Sanskrit - [Candrikā (fragments)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.art.alamkara.dhvani.dhvanyaloka!candrika*fragments) — Sanskrit - [Mahābhārata](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.mahabharata.vyasa) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.sanskrit.mahayanasutra.saddharmapundarika) — Sanskrit - [Vinayapiṭaka](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.theravada.vp) — Pāli - [Bhagavaduṣṇīṣamahā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.sanskrit.mahayanasutra.samadhi.bhagavadusnisamaha) — Sanskrit - [Kāmasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.kama.vatsyayana) — Vātsyāyana Mallanāga, Sanskrit - [Pauliśasiddhānta](https://indike.org/pramana/in.astro.siddhanta.early.paulisa) — Sanskrit - [Prajñāpāramitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.sanskrit.prajnaparamita) — Sanskrit - [Romakasiddhānta](https://indike.org/pramana/in.astro.siddhanta.early.romaka) — Sanskrit - [Mahāyānasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.sanskrit.mahayanasutra) — Sanskrit - [Kubjikāmata](https://indike.org/pramana/in.sampradaya.saiva.agama.kubjika) — Sanskrit - [Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.sanskrit.prajnaparamita.vajracchedika) — Sanskrit - [Sukhāvatīvyūha (larger)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.sanskrit.mahayanasutra.sukhavativyuha) — Sanskrit - [Śatapathabrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.satapatha) — Yājñavalkya & Śāṇḍilya (Vedic teacher), Sanskrit - [Ratnākara](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.sanskrit.mahayanasutra.paripriccha.ratnakara) — Sanskrit - [Uṣṇīṣacakravartitantrasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.sanskrit.dharani.buddha.usnisacakravartitantrasutra) — Sanskrit - [Pāṭaliputra](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.pataliputra) - [Nālandā](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.nalanda) - [Dambal](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.dambal) - [Vijayanagara](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.vijayanagara) - [Yogaratnākara (Mayūrapāda Bhikṣu)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.yoga.yogaratnakara-mayurapada-bhiksu) — Mayūrapāda Bhikṣu 1700, Sanskrit - [Śārṅgadharapaddhati](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.subhasita.subhasita.kosa.sarngadharapaddhati) — Śārṅgadhara, Sanskrit - [Rasendrasārasaṃgraha (Gopāla Kṛṣṇā)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.rasa.cikitsa.rasendrasarasamgraha) — Gopāla Kṛṣṇā 1800, Sanskrit - [Rasakaumudī (Śrīkaṇtha Dīkṣita)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.rasa.rasakaumudi) — Śrīkaṇtha Dīkṣita 1600, Sanskrit - [Arkaprakāśa (Rāvaṇapaṇḍita)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.cikitsa.kalpana.arkaprakasa) — Rāvaṇapaṇḍita 1600, Sanskrit - [Pañcasiddhāntikā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.astro.siddhanta.early.pancasiddhantika) — Varāhamihira, Sanskrit - [Ātmatattvaviveka](https://indike.org/pramana/in.darsana.nyaya.atmatattvaviveka) — Udayana, Sanskrit - [Rasahṛdaya](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.rasa.parada.rasahrdaya) — Govinda, Sanskrit - [Rasaratnadīpikā (Allarāja)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.art.alamkara.rasa.rasaratnadipika-allaraja) — Allarāja, Sanskrit - [Rasapradīpa (Śaṅkara Bhaṭṭa)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.med.rasa.rasapradipa) — Śaṅkara Bhaṭṭa, Sanskrit --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1902.v2) · Pramāṇa