[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Science, technology and education](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science) › [History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956) › c10 # History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c10: Chapter I History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c10 - **Language:** English ### Chapter I ### [c10.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10.1) PRE-HARAPPAN PERIOD (Circa 4000 B C—2000 B C) ### [c10.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10.2) Evidences of the earliest cultural settlement in India have been obtained from the excavations in Baluchistan and the neighbouring parts of Sind Earliest agricultural communities yet known in India have been iudentified in these mountainous and desert areas of the country. It is estimated to date back in the fourth millenium B. C. and shows a close relationship with the ancient Bronze Age Culture of the neighbouring regions of Western Asia. Various settlements that have been unearthed are believed by the archæologists, to represent more or less independent cultures of their own, and a classification has been made on the basis of the techniques employed in pottery painting. People in these ancient settlements were all acquainted with the art of making potteries of burnt clay and painting them with various designs. A broad classification, based on the colour of the wares, has been made with subdivisions named after the sites of occurrence as shown below (\*cf.\* Fig. 1). ### [c10.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10.3) I. Buff-ware Cultures: (a) The Quetta Culture. (b) The Amri-Nal Culture (with Amri in Sind and the Nal Valley in Baluchistan). (c) The Kulli Culture (in South Baluchistan). II. Red-ware Cultures: (f) The Zhob Cultures (from sites in North Baluchistan). ### [c10.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10.4) The pottery from the Quetta sites has got a buff-body, painted over with designs in a purplish brown or black paint. ### [c10.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10.5) The wares from Amri and from the Nal Valley are more or less of the same type, which justifies their treatment under one head (\*cf.\* Fig 2\*a\* and 2\*b\*). ### [c10.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10.6) The houses in these settlements were made of stone and mud bricks with a refinement of white plaster in some instances over the inner faces of the walls In a cemetery at Nal a flat copper axe was found besides many pottery vessels and beads in certain areas, and two hoards of copper implements were observed at another place. ### [c10.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10.7) The colour of the Amri-Nal pottery body is a verv fine soft buff or pink On this a white slip is frequently applied as a background for painted designs Polychrome pottery vessels have also been found at Nal with red, blue, green and yellow paint. ### [c10.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10.8) Copper axes and chisels, found in the Nal cemetery, have not been all analysed: but a fragment of an axe found near about the cemetery gave on analysis ### [c10.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10.9) | Copper | . | 93.05 per cent. | | Lead | . | 2.14 " " | | Nickel | ... | 4 80 " " | | Arsenic | | trace (\*cf.\* Piggott, \*Prehistoric India\*, p.90) | ### [c10.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10.10) The high percentage of nickel is rather significant and reminds one of the copper objects from Mesopotamia of Early Dynastic specimens as also of copper articles found at Mohenjo-daro and at Harappa as we shall discuss hereafter. The presence of nickel has been attested in the copper ores of Rajputana and Afghanistan But it is quite likely that the metal was derived from a local Baluchi ore, as ancient copper workings are alleged to exist in Baluchistan The lack of communication and the independent character of these early agricultural settlements of small size exclude the possibility of its being obtained from a distant source The comparatively very low percentage of arsenic in the metal also indicates a source different from that of the Harappan copper. ### [c10.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10.11) Fig. 2\*a\*. Polychrome Nal wares (Piggott, \*Prehistoric India\*). ### [c10.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10.12) Fig. 2\*b\* Amri wares (\*Ancient India\*, 1946). ### [c10.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10.13) Among the other findings in the Nal cemetery, beads made of agate, carnelian and lapis lazuli may particularly be mentioned. Lapis lazuli was probably obtained at a later date from contact with the Harappan folk who acquired this substance mostly from Persia and Afghanistan. Beads made of a glass frit, very similar to faience, found in the cemetery must also be of later date, indicating contact with the Harappan people. The finding of a perforated stone weight very similar in shape to those from Mohenjo-daro confirms this view. ### [c10.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10.14) A third series of sites of settlements in South Baluchistan in the Kolwa region gives evidence of a distinctive culture, named as the Kulli Culture, characterised by their painted pottery style. Pottery, baked clay figurines and copper objects have been found in the cemeteries in the Kulli region. Influence of the Harappa style in the potteries of later periods can be detected. The painting on the pottery body is generally of a black colour with an occasional use of red. There is frequently a pale red or sometimes a whitish slip, on which the painted design is placed. Clay figurines representing cattle, particularly the humped bull, are painted. The figurines of women, however, are of a single colour, though their modelling is more elaborate and ornamental. Vessels carved out of soft stone also form a special feature of Kulli Culture, indicating contact with the Indus Valley Civilization. Copper and bronze objects form a surprisingly large part of the grave-goods deposited with the cremations. Cremation cemeteries have been unearthed at some sites in the Kulli region, particularly at Mehi. A copper mirror, 5 inches in diameter with a copper handle representing a stylised female figure, constitutes a most outstanding find in the Mehi cemetery. It reflects indeed a great credit to the inventive skill of these early Baluchistan metal-workers. The same cemetery was found to contain another copper mirror in the shape of a circular disc, 5 inches across and without a handle, besides two copper pins, one with a flat, disc-shaped head and the other with a head of small lapis lazuli bead. Fragments of simple copper bracelets and of small bowl (containing, as found on analysis, traces of nickel) were the other articles to be noted. A copper pin with a somewhat bent head was found also at Kulli, as well as a fragment of sheet gold. Beads of lapis lazuli and agate also occurred in numbers (\*cf.\* Fig. 3). ### [c10.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10.15) There is good evidence of trade exchanges and movement of people between these Baluchistan settlements and those of the Indus Valley. Points of contact between the Kulli Culture and that of Mesopotamia also become evident from a consideration of the similarity in composition and spirit, and to some extent in technique, between the two groups of pottery. According to Piggott there is some evidence that the merchants of Baluchistan went by sea to settle in Sumer (Mesopotamia) much earlier than the trade between the Indus Valley or Harappa people and those of the twin rivers in Mesopotamia was established. ### [c10.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10.16) Sites of allied prehistoric settlements have also been discovered in North Baluchistan, particularly in the valley of the Zhob river. These are not so numerous as those of Sind or South Baluchistan. They represent, however, a group of cultures which though akin to those already described, yet possess some distinguishing characteristics of their own. They are connected possibly with the Red-ware Cultures of Persia. These Zhob Cultures show more or less a distinctive painted pottery style with a red pottery body. Towards the later stages of the Zhob Cultures contact with the Indus Valley Civilization becomes evident, as in the case with the South Baluchistan Cultures. The painting is stylish with red and black on the red body of the wares, recalling the Amri technique and suggesting an interchange of ideas. A series of important prehistoric towns on the spot in the final stage of their development with settlements or trading posts established by the Harappan people are implied by a consideration of the change in the pottery technique found in the articles from different stratified deposits. As in the Kulli Culture of South Baluchistan a number of clay figurines of cattle and women have also been found in the Zhob Valley settlements. In the earlier \[Figure: K U L L I Fig. 3. Typical Kulli wares \*Ancient India\*, 1946 .\] ### [c10.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10.17) \[Figure: Z H O B Fig. 4. Typical Zhob wares (\*Ancient India\*, 1946).\] ### [c10.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10.18) deposits there is little evidence of metallic articles, but copper objects, and beads of lapis and jade have been obtained from the latest strata indicative of possible Harappan occupation on the site (\*cf.\* Fig. 4). ### [c10.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10.19) In conclusion, it may be stated that the early Baluchistan settlements must have a priority over the Indus Valley Culture and should be dated well back in the fourth millenium B.C., while the later settlements began in the Early Dynastic Period of Sumerian Culture near about 2800 B.C. and continued to overlap with the Harappan Culture or even later. ### [c10.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10.20) We have seen that these prehistoric people were acquainted with the art of making baked or burnt clay pottery, as well as painting the same with two or more colours. This implies the construction of open and closed kilns. They also knew the art of extracting copper from the copper ores and of working the metal into various articles by hammering, cutting and rolling. Closed pottery kilns with their reducing atmosphere served satisfactorily for the smelting of copper ores for which the temperature needed does not exceed 700°-800°C. But no evidence of cast copper articles has been obtained, showing that, as a much higher temperature of about 1100°C for melting copper for the purpose is necessary, the construction of an advanced type of furnace to produce this high temparature was not evolved at the time. Nevertheless, with the development of the art of painted and polychrome pottery, and that of smelting copper from copper ores, it may be said that these prehistoric people of the fourth and third millenium B.C. laid the foundation of chemistry and of metallurgy in India. ## Linked texts (5) - [Harappā](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.harappa) - [Mohenjo-daro](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.mohenjo-daro) - [Amri](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.amri) - [Kulli](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.kulli) - [Mehi](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.mehi) --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c10) · Pramāṇa