History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c14: Vedic And Ayurvedic Period

History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c14

Language: English

c14.s1 Ayurvedic Period — 36 parts

Vedic And Ayurvedic Period

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(Circa 1500 B C to pre-Buddhistic era, 600 B C)

After the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization as a result of the inroads of war-like and nomadic tribes from the north-west, there is little evidence of any intellectual and cultural activities in India till the advent of the Aryans, a member of the so-called Indo-European group of peoples, who might be said to represent the last phase of the folk-movement that affected India in that early age. This happened at about 1700 B.C., as the archæological, linguistic and other evidences seem to suggest. The Aryans, to begin with, settled themselves in the North-West India, the region where the Harappan civilization flourished, and then gradually spread themselves towards the east along the banks of the river Ganges.

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The Ṛigveda, the oldest composition and the sacred religious text of the Aryans, which was transmitted almost unaltered from generation to generation simply through oral traditions, memorizing and recital, furnishes us with a picture of the earliest Indo-Aryan culture. They were predominantly agriculturists, reckoning wealth in domesticated sheep, cows and horses; they knew the uses of bronze, copper, gold and silver; and they made use of wheeled chariots for rapid transport and warfare. They used to speak in Vedic Sanskrit—one of the original Indo-European languages, and were worshippers of anthropomorphic gods They were frequently at war among themselves and with the earlier inhabitants of the land, whom they subdued and derisively termed Dasyus or Dasas. They built up a society which was mostly priest-laden with division of labour that ultimately gave rise to the three main classes known as Brahmins, the priests; Kshatriyas, the warriors and rulers; and Vaisyas, the traders. Nevertheless, the Aryans gradually imbibed and assimilated the religious practices, social customs and cultures of those earlier people, the so-called Dravidians or Dasyus, and even intermingled with them by marriages inspite of many rigid regulations for the preservation of the purity of the race.

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The Rigveda is regarded as a genuine document of the period when the Aryans first established their settlement in India, i.e. of the 15th to 12th centuries B.C. and possibly of an even earlier period. From an examination of the material culture of the period as can be extracted from the hymns of the Rigveda combined with their interpretation in the light of archæological evidences, we can arrive at certain conclusions about their scientific ideas and practices. The Aryans, when they first came to India were mostly pastoral communities and, compared to the earlier Indus Valley people, much less advanced in cultural achievements. The Indus Valley Culture, based on complicated urban organization, constituted, so to say, a landmark in the annals of the early Bronze Age Civilization of the 3rd millenium B.C. In the Rigveda, we find the mention of only gold, silver, copper and bronze among metals or metallic objects. A hymn (1, 162) gives an account of the bronze cauldron slung over the fire by pot-hooks for the cooking of meat. Gold was used for ornaments like anklets, rings, etc. Mention of metal vessels, tools and armour, made mainly of bronze, affords evidence of the knowledge of metal-working. Some writers (including Neogi) believe that iron was known during the time of the Rigveda. For, according to them, the word *ayas*, which occurs in many hymns of the Rigveda, definitely refers to iron in certain instances. We cannot, however, subscribe to this view. Because we should not lose sight of the fact that *ayas* was used as a generic name for metals in the Vedic age, and sometimes also for gold. Then again in the Brahmanas and Upanishads, which were of later date than the Vedas (800 B.C.—500 B.C.), we find that the word *ayas* has been differentiated into *lohitayas* or red-metal and *krishnayas* or black metal, representing copper and iron respectively without any doubt. The very fact that this necessity was not felt during the time of the Rigveda is a strong evidence against the view that iron was known in those days. Besides, we have already seen that no article of iron has been found in the excavation at Harappa or Mohenjo-daro. So, the Aryans when they first entered India as nomadic tribes and agricultural communities could not have been unacquainted with copper and bronze. That they were acquainted with iron and not with copper and bronze in the beginning is, therefore, a view that has little justification in its favour.

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References are found in the Rigveda about the preparation and tanning of leather and hides for use as slings, beadstrings, reins and whips.

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Very little information is available about the Aryan pottery in the time of the Rigveda except of their use as vessels for various household purposes.

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There is, however, plentiful mention of a number of fermented drinks. *Soma*, the fermented juice from the stems of soma plant, had been highly extolled and even worshipped or invoked as the representation of divine power. It was, however, largely used during the religious rituals. Among other fermented liquors, there is a mention of *madhu*, a drink supplied at feasts, and *sura*, which was probably a kind of beer brewed from barley grain. Curds or fermented milk also constituted an important article of diet.

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It can be gathered from the texts that the cloths were mainly made of wool and the garments were often dyed red, purple and brown. Obviously the people were acquainted with the art of dyeing with certain natural vegetable colouring matters.

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Following the Rigveda and related to it are the three other Vedas: the Samaveda, the Yajurveda and the Atharvaveda, whose composition has been assigned to the eleventh and tenth centuries B.C., the Atharvan being the latest of the group.

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In the White Yajurveda we find, however, mention of six metals. It tells of *ayas* (gold), *hiranya* (silver), *loha* (copper), *shyāma* (iron), *sisa* (lead) and *trapu* (tin). The Atharvaveda, on the other hand, names gold as *harita* (yellow), silver as *rajata* (white), and copper as *lohita* (red).

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The Atharvaveda consists mostly of charms, spells, incantations, magic, sorcery, demonology and witchcraft. It deals also with plants and vegetable products as helpful agents in the treatment of diseases and for the prolongation of life. In one hymn it refers to the soma plant as follows :

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"The strength of this *amrita* (ambrosia) do we give this man to drink. Moreover, I prepare a remedy that he may live a hundred years !"

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There is also a distinct reference to a remedy for promoting the growth of hair in another hymn (VI. 163. 1-2.).

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"As a goddess upon the goddess earth thou wast born, O plant ! We dig thee up, O nitani, that thou mayest strengthen (the growth) of the hair.

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"Strengthen the old (hair), beget the new ! That which has come forth render more luxurious !"

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In the Atharvaveda the hymns for the cure of diseases and of possessions by demons of disease are known as "bhaishajyani", while those which have for their object the prolongation of life and preservation of youth and health are known as "ayushyani"—a term which later on gave place to "rasayana" the Sanskrit equivalent of alchemy. As illustrations, we shall quote here two such hymns under the latter heading, which are in the form of invocations to pearl and shell and to gold respectively.

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"Born in the Heavens, born in the sea, brought on from the river (Sindhu), this shell, born of gold, is our life-prolonging amulet."

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"The bone of the gods turned into pearls ; that, animated, dwells in waters. That do I fasten upon thee unto life, lustre, strength, longevity, unto a life lasting a hundred autumns. May the (amulet) of pearl protect thee !"

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“The gold which is born from fire, the immortal they bestowed upon the mortals. He who knows this deserves it; of old age dies he who wears it ”

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“The gold, (endowed by) the sun with beautiful colour, which the men of yore, rich in descendants, did desire, may it gleaming envelope thee in lustre ! Long-lived becomes he who wears it !”

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While gold was regarded as the elixir of life, lead was looked upon as the dispeller of sorcery. Thus a hymn tells us

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“To the lead Varuna gives blessings, to the lead Agni gives help. Indra gave me the lead ; unfailingly dispels sorcery ”

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Thus we find that the origin of alchemical notions gathered round gold, lead, soma juice and other medicinal plants as early as the age of the Atharvaveda in India. And as the Vedas, the sacred scriptures of the ancient Hindus, enjoyed a very high canonical sanctity and were viewed more as revelations than as human compositions, there is no wonder that medicine and, for that matter, chemical knowledge as well in ancient India have seldom been able to shake themselves completely free from the influence of magic, religion and alchemy as auxiliaries For, chemistry in ancient India, possibly more so than in Europe, was evolved chiefly as a handmaid of medicine and, somewhat later on, as adjunct of the Tantric cult The efficacy of the drug alone was by no means considered sufficient unless backed by the kindly interpretation of the deities.

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Hence both medicine and chemistry, particularly in their alchemical aspects, followed the course of religious practices in their development In fact, at no time they were free from theological tinge or urge. It had been a usual practice for the early workers and writers, while discussing theories or describing processes of chemical operations, to ascribe the origin thereof to their favourite gods and goddesses, or to start with a prayer to the presiding deity of the branch of knowledge concerned. Each element and phenomenon of nature, as well as the properties of each substance, were associated or identified with their respective divinities responsible for their manifestation. The presentation of subject matter in many writings and works of the Ayurvedic and Tantric period will be found to have been made in the shape of a dialogue between the god Siva or Hara and his consort Parvati or Gouri. Where the authors of the works were Buddhist by religion, we meet with the name of a Buddha, a Tathagata or an Avalokiteswara being invoked as the revealer of all knowledge.

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Ayurvedic Period

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(Circa 600 B C—800 A D)

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The Constitution and Properties of Matter :

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Atomic Theory.

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The Ayurvedic period constitutes the most flourishing and fruitful age of ancient India relating to the accumulation and development of knowledge in chemical science which, as already stated, was then closely associated with medicine. It will be observed that the medicine and chemistry of the period were dominated by the abstract theories of the Upanishads and the systems of philosophies developed during the post-Vedic age. This relates to the physical and chemical theories embracing the process of entire cosmic evolution and the methodology of science. We do not propose to discuss these theories in any detail here, as a separate section has been set apart for the purpose, which is more or less a reproduction of the article by B. N. Seal embodied in the second volume of the History of Hindu Chemistry

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But as chemistry has to deal primarily with the composition and changes of matter, a concise preliminary summary of the salient features of some of these theories will be given here before we proceed to deal with the development of chemical knowledge of the period in its practical aspect

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It may be stated at the outset that these theories were purely speculative in character with little or no experimental verification, being the result of only systematic and logical thoughts; yet they may be said to stand in good comparison with some of the most recent and advanced scientific ideas of our own time, and to bear the stamp of high intellectual perfection and sublime intuition. Two of the theories of cosmogenesis deserve particular mention in this connection.

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One has been described in the Samkhya system of Hindu philosophies (circa 500 B.C.) and the other in the Chhandogya Upanishad.

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The Samkhya-Patanjala View of the Process of Cosmic Evolution.

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The Samkhya theory of cosmogony, which is also upheld by Patanjali in his Yoga system on all essential points may be viewed as possessing all the characteristics of a scientific hypothesis. For, it may be represented as based on the principles of conservation, transformation and dissipation of energy, as also on the conception of space (*desa*) and time (*kala*). The idea of causality has also been elaborated in an advanced manner. It gives a comprehensive picture of cosmogenesis in both its material and metaphysical aspects

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According to Samkhya the universe, as it is manifested to us, is evolved out of an unmanifested cosmic nature termed *prakriti* or *avyakta*, the ultimate ground. The latter is defined as an infinite, eternal, ubiquitous, indestructible, indifferentiated, indeterminate continuum. This was believed to be made up of infinitesimal *reals* or *gunas*, representing substantive entities. These entities are classified under three heads distinguished as *sattva*, the essence or intelligence-stuff, *rajas*, the energy-stuff, and *tamas*, the inertia or matter-stuff. These three *gunas* exist together in equilibrium or uniform diffusion in the infinite continuum, *prakriti*. It is indeed intriguing to note here that Samkhya attributes the character of both quantum (*parichchhin-natva*) and continuity or extension (*pariman*) to the energy-stuff as well as to the matter-stuff. It bears resemblance to our modern conception of energy and matter. In the beginning the cosmic nature or *prakriti*, the continuum, was in a state of perfect equipoise with all its *gunas* or stuffs in equilibrium or uniform diffusion. This represented the process of cosmic evolution under arrest. The process of evolution was then initiated by a disturbance of this equilibrium through the transcendental or magnetic influence exerted on the slumbering *prakriti* by *purusha*, the Absolute, often designated as the Soul, the *atman*, or the transcendental self *Purusha* or *atman* is incapable of modification or affectation of any kind either as subject or object. The disturbance of the original equilibrium in the *prakriti* led to an unequal aggregation or collection of *gunas*, which represented a creative transformation accompanied by evolution of motion (*parispanda*) This evolution has been defined in Samkhya as the process of differentiation in the integrated whole. This proceeds in accordance with a definite law which it cannot violate or overstep. Cosmic evolution is considered in Samkhya as a two-fold process, creative as well as destructive, dissimilative as well as assimilative, katabolic as well as anabolic. As by unequal aggregation of *gunas* the creation of organic and inorganic matter results, so there is a constant tendency on the part of the unstable equilibrium, produced by unequal aggregation, to revert to the original stable equilibrium of *prakriti* with the uniform equal diffusion of the *gunas*. This suggests a dissipation of the energy and the mass-stuff.

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The totality of the *gunas* in the universe remains always constant, taking together the manifested and the unmanifested, the actual and the potential. It is only the changes or differences in their collocation or aggregation which are responsible for the diversity of phenomena and objects. This implies a principle of the conservation of the mass-stuff and the energy-stuff, as well as of their transformations The law of causation then follows directly from this.

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The conception of space (*desa*) and time (*kala*), and the idea of causality, as elaborated in Samkhya, are of a surprisingly advanced character

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The conception of cosmic evolution as advanced in the Chhandogya Upanishad is of an entirely different character. According to this, the universe in the beginning existed, so to say, in a highly refined or potential form like a seed or an embryo. This then changed into a grosser stuff, *ap* (water), which latter again changed into a still grosser body, egg. This egg, after a period of maturing, burst into two pieces, which gave rise to the two worlds, the Heaven and Earth. This is obviously a very crude picture, but curiously enough, bears some resemblance to the modern theory of evolution based on the idea of expanding universe.

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As we are primarily concerned with the theories of matter and its constitution, we should better confine ourselves to these, leaving aside for the present the metaphysical aspects of the Indian philosophical systems. We shall, therefore, proceed to discuss the atomistic conception of matter as formulated by the ancient Indians.

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Kapila, the reputed originator of the Samkhya philosophy, believed to be the oldest of the six systems of Hindu philosophies, developed his ideas about the ultimate particles of matter in the latter part of his theory of cosmogenesis to which we have referred above. According to him five subtle or infra-atomic particles, named as *tanmatras* and imperceptible to human senses, were derived from the conscious principle, *bhutadi*—the super-subtile homogeneous matter rudiment, as a result of continued differentiation and unequal aggregation. These subsequently gave rise, by the same process, to the five grosser elements (*bhutas*) :—space or ether (*akasa*), air (*vayu*), fire (*tejas*), water (*ap*) and earth (*kshit*). These five types of grosser elements should not be confounded with five different elementary substances in the usual sense. They are regarded as representing five abstract principles, or rather a classification of substances on the basis of their properties and states of aggregation. For instance, earth, water and air may be viewed as comprising all the so-called elements or compounds of chemistry. Thus, *kshit* typifies all solids, *ap* all liquids, and *vayu* all gases. According to Samkhya, atoms (*anus*) of these grosser elements are composite units made up of infra-atomic particles (*tanmatras*). The difference in the properties of the same *bhuta* class is attributed by Samkhya to a difference in the grouping of *tanmatras* in the atoms (*anus*). The atomic theory of Samkhya bears a great resemblance to the Greek theory of elements introduced by Empedocles (490-430 B.C.).

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Kanada, the founder of the Vaiseshika system of Indian philosophy, chiefly occupied himself with the study of the properties of matter and the nature of atoms and molecules The atomic hypothesis, as propounded by him, has many points in common with that of the Greek philosopher Democritus (470-360 B C.) Almost identical views are expressed in the Nyaya system of Hindu philosophy

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The distinguishing feature of the chemical theory of the Nyaya-Vaiseshika system is the theory of *anus* or atoms. They are comparable to *tanmatras* of the Samkhya philosophy. The idea has been fully worked out by Kanada in the Vaiseshika.

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*Akasa* (ether), according to Kanada, has no atomic structure; it is inert and ubiquitous serving only as the substratum of sound which is supposed to travel in the form of waves in the manifesting medium of *vayu* (air). Samkhya too conceived of *akasa* as the universal all-pervading medium in which air, light and heat corpuscles, and other atoms move and float about. Kanada, therefore, recognised four kinds of atoms; viz., the *kshiti*, the *ap*, the *tejas* and the *vayu* atoms, which correspond to the atoms of four gross elementary types of matter,—earth, water, fire and air, as taught by the Greek philosophers Regarding light and heat Kanada makes the remarkable statement that they are only the different forms of one and the same essential entity, *tejas* Kanada attributes to these atoms certain characteristic properties, such as number, quantity, individuality, mass, gravity, fluidity, velocity, elasticity, as well as certain characteristic potentials of sense stimuli like colour, taste, smell or touch According to him atoms are eternal and indestructible, though they cannot exist in free or uncombined state. As an aggregate or in the combined state they are, however, transient The qualities of *kshiti* are colour, taste, smell and touch, the distinguishing quality is, however, smell. *Ap* has the qualities of *kshiti* excepting smell and with the addition of viscidity, its distinguishing quality is coolness. *Tejas* has the qualities of *kshiti* excepting smell, taste and gravity; its distinguishing quality is colour and hotness. *Vāyu* has the qualities of *kshiti* with the exception of smell, taste and colour; its distinguishing quality is touch.

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Combination of Atoms

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One atom unites with another under an inherent impulse to form a binary molecule or a compound of two atoms. The atoms possess an intrinsic vibratory or rotatory motion (*parispanda*). Atoms of the same *bhuta* uniting in pairs give rise to molecules with homogeneous qualities corresponding to the original quality of the atoms, provided that no chemical change under the action of heat corpuscles takes place. This obviously represents the formation of binary molecules of elementary substances according to our modern conception. The binary molecules then combine among themselves by groups of three, four, five, etc., to produce larger aggregates in obedience to the moral law underlying the creation. The variety of elementary substances is thus originated. Another view of the same school, however, maintains that some atoms may unite in pairs, some in triads, others in tetrads, etc., either directly or by the successive addition of one atom to each preceding aggregate. This leads to the formation of binary, ternary, and quarternary molecules, etc. The variety of substances of the same *bhuta* class, say of the earth substances, is thus the consequence of the difference in their molecular composition and configuration with the development of different specific qualities.

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An elementary substance, thus produced by primary combination, may, however, undergo qualitative transformation under the influence of heat corpuscles. The process consists of the following changes in order:

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(1) Their decomposition into the original homogeneous atoms, (2) a transformation of the character of the atoms, and (3) the re-union of the transformed atoms into different groups or arrangements with development of new characteristic properties.

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Combination may also take place either between atoms of two or more substances belonging to the same *bhuta* class or of those of different *bhūta* classes. A classification on this basis giving the following order of compounds has been made.

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(A) *Mono-bhautic compounds* :—These are the simplest ; i. e., compounds formed by the union of homogeneous atoms of different substances which are isomeric modes of the same *bhūta* class

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(B) *Hetero-bhautic compounds* —These may be bi or poly-bhautic compounds formed by the union of heterogeneous atoms of substances belonging to the different *bhūta* classes.

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The characteristic of Kanada's atomic theory is the assumption of the atoms as the indivisible ultimate particles of matter with eternal life They are thus indestructible. Though eternal in themselves, they are, however, non-eternal as aggregates. As aggregates they may be organic and inorganic. Atoms are also conceived of as spherical in shape. According to Kanada, the variety of substances of the same *bhūta* class, as well as mono and poly-bhautic compounds, result from variation in the collocation of atoms and configuration of molecules. Thus a conception of the arrangement of atoms in space constitutes an essential part of Kanada's theory of chemical combination.

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The Atomic Theory of the Jainas

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The atomic theory of the Jainas (circa 40 A.D) is characterised by a very remarkable and interesting contribution to the subject of chemical combination. It relates to their analysis of atomic linking and the mutual attraction or repulsion of atoms in the formation of molecules. The Jaina system of philosophy holds that the different classes of elementary substances (*bhūtas*) are all made up of the same primordial atoms. Hence, the same kind of interatomic forces is involved in the formation of chemical compounds, as well as of molecules, from atoms

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According to the Jainas mere juxtaposition of atoms or molecules is not sufficient to bring about chemical combination. An interlinking between atoms or molecules must precede all compound formation. Matter (*bhūta*) in the Jaina philosophy is called *pudgala*, which exists in two forms: *anu* (atom) and *skandha* (aggregate). Linking is possible only between two particles of matter of opposite character. One must be positive and the other negative. Such opposing qualities are illustrated, for instance, by roughness and smoothness, dryness and viscosity, etc. Two homogeneous particles, both positive or both negative, cannot unite if these qualities be of equal magnitude. But attraction between two such similar particles may occur leading to a combination or linking between them if the magnitude or strength of the quality characterising the one is twice or greater than twice as that of the other. All changes in the qualities of the atom and the physical properties of the aggregate depend on this linking. The Jaina view thus seems to bear a family resemblance to the *dualistic hypothesis* of chemical combination propounded by the great Swedish chemist Berzelius nearly after 1800 years.

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Regarding the dates of the philosophical systems nothing definite is known. But in the opinion of the most competent authorities on the subject like Max Muller, Macdonell and others it may be stated, without the risk of any serious or adverse criticism, that the six systems of Hindu philosophy gradually took their shape from the time of Buddha (5th century B.C.) to about 100 B.C., accompanied by the growth and expansion of Jainism and Buddhism. At the same time it cannot, however, be denied that they are genetically related to the doctrines preached in the Upanishads and Brahmanas of earlier ages.

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We may, therefore, reasonably conclude that the theories relating to the constitution and properties of matter as elaborated in the Hindu philosophies had an independent origin of their own, and were not, as suggested by some European writers, borrowed from the Greeks. In fact, Professor Macdonell in his ‘History of Sanskrit Literature’ remarks on this question of priority as follows :

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“According to Greek tradition, Thales, Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Democritus, and others undertook journeys to

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oriental countries in order to study philosophy. Hence, there is at least the historical possibility of the Greeks having been influenced by the Indian thought through Persia "

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Colebrooke too sums up his views in the following words

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“I should be disposed to conclude that the Indians were in this instance teachers than learners” ( *Trans Roy. Asiatic Soc.*, Vol. I, p 579 )

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Prof. H H. Wilson in his preface to Samkhyakarika (1887, p. IX) also observes .—“that the Hindus derived any of their philosophical ideas from the Greeks seems very improb-able, and if there is any borrowing in the case, the latter were most probably indebted to the former.”

Linked texts (3)

Ṛgvedasaṃhitā — Sanskrit
Chāndogyopaniṣad — Sanskrit
Atharvavedasaṃhitā — Atharvan & Aṅgiras, Sanskrit

History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c14: Vedic And Ayurvedic Period

Contents

Vedic And Ayurvedic Period

Ayurvedic Period

Linked texts (3)