[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Science, technology and education](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science) › [History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956) › c15.s2 # History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c15.s2: Metallurgy and Working of Metals History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c15.s2 - **Language:** English ### Metallurgy and Working of Metals ### [c15.s2.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.1) An account of the art of making pottery and glass has been given above. We now proceed to deal with the achievements of the ancient Indians in metallurgy and working of metals, as illustrated by many ancient and historic monuments still extant in many parts of India, or as recorded in the writings of early travellers from foreign lands, or as can be judged from a consideration of many archæological specimens ### [c15.s2.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.2) Copper ### [c15.s2.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.3) A solid copper bolt, apparently shaped into form by hammer after being cast, has been found in the Rampurwa Asoka pillar near the frontier of Nepal. Historical evidences indicate that it is a product of the third century B.C. The bolt is barrel-shaped in appearance, slightly tapering at the two ends. It has a length of 24½ inches, and a circumference of 14 inches at the centre and of 12 inches at the ends (Fig. 23). The metal is pure copper and is exquisitely worked into shape. The bolt was very likely employed for fixing the large stone capital of the Asoka pillar with the body of the pillar itself. It was presented to the Indian Museum, Calcutta, by its discoverer, W. H. W. Garrick in 1881, where it is still preserved in the Archæological Section ### [c15.s2.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.4) \[Figure: Fig. 23. Copper bolt in the Rampurwa Asoka Pillar. (Neogi, \*Copper in Ancient India\*)\] ### [c15.s2.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.5) In the ruins of an old Buddhist monastery situated at Sultanganj in the district of Bhagalpur (Bihar) a large copper statue of Buddha was discovered in 1864 by Mr. Harris, a Resident Engineer of East India Railway. It has a height of 7 ft. 6 in. with a weight estimated to be nearly one ton. The statue is of very pure copper and provided with an outer garment sufficiently transparent to make the body proper visible through it. It seems to have been cast in two layers, the outer layer being cast over the inner one presumably by the \*cire perdue\* process (Fig. 24). The casting of the inner body was effected in segments on an earthen mould; these segments are held together by iron bands. From the mode of its construction and from the fact that a coin of the reign of Chandragupta II was found in the neighbourhood of the monastery, it might be concluded that the statue is a product of the 5th century A.D. Among the other articles, found in the vicinity, are the hand of another large copper figure and three small standing copper figures of Buddha besides lumps of copper ore. This seems to suggest that the smelting and casting operations were conducted on the spot. The statue was removed to the Birmingham Museum where it possibly lies still preserved. ### [c15.s2.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.6) The famous Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang has left a description of a colossal copper statue of Buddha, 80 ft. in height, which he found standing upright near about the famous Nalanda convent in Bihar. According to the Chinese traveller this gigantic copper image, which would approach the bronze colossus of Rhodes island in dimensions, requires a pavillion of six stages to cover it. It is believed to have been constructed during the reign of Raja Purnavarman, the last descendant of king Asoka, a king of the 7th century A.D. This remarkable figure of metallurgical skill must have disappeared very shortly afterwards due to some destructive operation as no further mention of it is found in later chronicles. ### [c15.s2.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.7) There are numerous evidences about the use of copper in early days in India in the form of coins issued by the Greek and Bactrian kings of the 3rd century B.C., as well as \[Figure: Fig. 24. Copper statue of Buddha at Sultanganj. ( \*Neogi, Copper in Ancient India\* )\] ### [c15.s2.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.8) Kushan kings like Kanishka and his successors in the 2nd century A D, and by the Gupta kings of the following periods The earliest coins were punch-marked or stamped with a die. Subsequently, copper coins were evidently made by first casting molten copper in moulds so as to make them of uniform size and then striking between dies. ### [c15.s2.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.9) Punch-marked silver and cast copper coins, usually believed to be the currency of the Mauryan and the Sunga periods, have been found from the lower starta of excavation at Bangarh, already referred to. What appears to be a plumbing bob of bell-metal has been discovered among objects of these strata. A crucible made of clay (3.55″ in length and 2.75″ in diameter) has also been found among them. ### [c15.s2.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.10) Copper plates have been in use in India from a very early time. Large copper plates were used in those days in ceremonies associated with the grants of lands by kings to Brahmins and others. Some of these have been found to weigh several pounds. As an illustration, mention may be made of one of the earliest copper plates, Sohgaura plate, discovered in the village of Sohgaura in the Gorakhpur district of the Uttar Pradesha. The inscription on the plate in Mauryan Brahmi script suggests that it must be a product of the 3rd century B.C. The material, however, does not seem to be pure copper, but an alloy of the metal. Other instances of such plates are furnished by those found at Taxila and those bearing the inscription of the Kushan king, Kanishka. Copper utensils have also been used in India from remote times, particularly in connection with religious ceremonies, as the metal copper was held to be sacred by the ancient Hindus. We find their mention in the writings of Megasthenes (3rd century B.C) and of the Hindu Law-giver Manu (early Christian era). Copper caskets for the preservation of relics have also been found buried under stupas and monasteries of ancient times. The metal is not always pure copper but an alloy of the same. ### [c15.s2.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.11) There are ample evidences of copper being smelted on an extensive scale in ancient India. In the Singbhum and Hazaribagh districts of Chotanagpur it is believed, on geological evidences, that copper was mined and extracted some two thousand years ago. According to some geologists, the mining and smelting of copper ores were initiated in this region by the Seraks or lay Jains. Deposits of copper-slags were abundantly found on the hills all around these places. In various places of Rajputana many extinct copper mines are found from which copper was obtained in ancient times. Some of these mines are worked even now on small scales following the old indigenous methods. Nepal was an important source of copper in ancient India. On account of its purity Nepal copper was highly valued in old days. The old method of manufacturing copper is still prevalent in Nepal and Sikkim. Copper mines were also worked and copper smelting carried out in the Central Provinces, the Kumaun district, the district of Gharwal and in some places of Madras Presidency. ### [c15.s2.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.12) Among the alloys of copper, bronze has been mentioned in the Ayurvedic treatises, the Charaka and the Susruta, and in the Arthashastra of Kautilya. In the Susruta directions are given for drinking water in bronze vessels. Household utensils made of brass have been mentioned in the writings of Manu. The alloy was also employed in making gongs or bells in those early days Hence, no distinction was made at those times between bronze and bell-metal. Both were designated by the same term \*kamsya\*. Large quantities of ornamental bronze articles have been found as a result of the excavation of the ancient burial sites at Tinnevelly in the Madras Presidency The bronze articles, which were found along with numerous iron implements, include ornamental vase-stands, jars and cups of different patterns with ornamental bowl lids, besides bronze bangles, necklaces, ear-ornaments and diadems. Cricular tubes, a number of sieve cups and perforated strainers for straining rice were also recovered. It is difficult to ascertain the age of their production or of the burial sites in which they were discovered. It is believed that they belong to the time of the Pandiyan kings of the 3rd and the 4th century B.C., when the custom of the urn burial was probably in vogue. Besides being used for household wares and ornamental articles, bronze has also been used in India from early days in casting statues of gods and goddesses. The bronze casters of Bengal in the 8th and the 9th centuries attained considerable reputation and it is said that the knowledge of bronze casting spread later on to Nepal and Tibet through them. ### [c15.s2.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.13) Another important alloy of copper is brass. The Ayurvedic treatise, the Charaka, mentions of it, where it is called \*riti\*. The same word is also found in the writings of Manu. ### [c15.s2.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.14) Brass articles, belonging to the first century A.D. or near about, have been unearthed by excavations of ancient Buddhistic stupas. A beautifully turned, cast brass casket was discovered in the deposits derived from the excavation of the stupas at Manikyālaya in 1830 by General Ventura. From the inscription on the various articles of the deposits and the accompanying Indo-Scythian coins, the age of the casket has been ascertained to be near about 2nd century A.D. Both bronze and brass were used in ancient India for coinage. Circular punch-marked brass coins of Dhanadeva and Āryavarma of Ayodhyā (c. 1st century B.C.) and other brass coins of the same period have been collected and can be found preserved in the Indian Museum. Like bronze, brass was also largely used in early days for making statues of gods and goddesses. An inscribed brass statue of Buddha was discovered in a pilgrim house at Fatehpur near Kāngrakot. It has a size of 30 cm in height and 13.5 cm. in width, and, as the inscription indicates, is a product of the 6th century A D. A very remarkable use of brass for large-scale constructional purpose has been recorded by the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang. It refers to an unfinished brass \*vihara\* (convent) near Nālanda made during the reign of Rājā Śīlāditya, known also as king Harshavardhana, in the seventh century A.D. It is stated that this \*vihara\* would have measured 100 ft. when completed in accordance with the plan. This bears undoubtedly an eloquent testimony to the skill of the ancient Indians in the smelting and working of metals. ### [c15.s2.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.15) Excavations at Taxila have revealed a large number of articles of copper, bronze, brass and lead dating from the 5th century B.C. to the 6th century A.D. These consist mostly of ornaments, toilet articles, household vessels, surgical and other instruments of the Kushan period (Figs. 25, 25 \*a\* and \*b\*). Analyses of these by the archæological chemists Mr. Sanaullah and Dr. Hamid are given in Table V below. From a consideration of the analytical results it may be concluded that the composition of soft copper, which was employed for hammered work, ### [c15.s2.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.16) TABLE V ### [c15.s2.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.17) Analysis of metallic objects found at Taxila ### [c15.s2.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.18) | Object | Copper | Tin | Arsenic | Anti-mony | Iron | Nickel | Lead | Zinc | Total | | 1. Flat bar (6th-7th cent BC) | 97.78 | | | | 1 79 | | | | 99.57(S) | | 2. Do (antimony painted) " | 87 05 | 2 01 | | 0 98 | 9.02 | | | | 99.06(S) | | 3 Rod (4th cent BC) | 98 33 | — | 0 19 | 0 35 | 0 45 | 0.51 | | | 99 83(S) | | 4 Plate (1st cent BC) | 98 93 | — | trace | 0 16 | 0 17 | 0 52 | | | 99.78(H) | | 5 Spout of a pot (1st cent A.D) | 77 45 | 0 74 | 0 24 | — | 0 56 | 0 43 | 18.65 | trace | 98 07(S) | | 6 Round bowl (3rd cent. B.C) | 76 76 | 21 55 | 0 16 | — | 0 95 | 0 48 | — | — | 99 90(S) | | 7 Vase (3rd cent BC) | 55 39 | 4 25 | 0 26 | 1 77 | 0 40 | 3 08 | 34.34 | | 99 49(S) | | 8 Flask (2nd cent BC) | 80 38 | 7 34 | | | 1 33 | 0 26 | 7 78 | 2 49 | 99 58(S) | | 9 Bangle (1st-5th cent BC) | 76 75 | 2 58 | | | | 0 11 | 6 33 | 13 07 | 98 84(S) | | 10 Bangle (2nd cent BC) | 73 72 | 0 10 | | 0 18 | 0 42 | — | 5.84 | 19 78 | 100 04(S) | | 11 Filling (bottom of antimony flask, 2nd cent BC) | 0 62 | 0 20 | | 0 85 | 0 35 | — | 97 98 | — | 100 0(S) | | 12 Solder (1st cent AD) | 3 11 | 46 13 | | 0 37 | 0 72 | | 49 67 | | 100 0(S) | | 13 Mixing pan (3rd-4th cent AD) | 74 24 | 24 58 | 0 18 | 0 02 | 0 72 | 0 26 | — | — | 100 0(S) | ### [c15.s2.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.19) S=Sanaullah, H=Dr Hamid \[Figure: Fig. 25\*a\*. Surgical instruments, spatula, etc of copper and bronze at Taxila (Marshall, \*Taxila\*, Vol. III, 1951).\] ### [c15.s2.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.20) Fig. 25. Copper and bronze at Taxila (\*Ancient India\*, 1947). ### [c15.s2.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.21) Fig. 25b. Household vessels, cooking pots, jars, etc., of copper and bronze at Taxila (Marshall, \*Taxila\*, Vol. III, 1951). ### [c15.s2.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.22) I cannot transcribe any text because the provided image appears completely blank. ### [c15.s2.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.23) shows that the metal was generally of great purity, sometimes reaching 99.7 per cent Bronze, containing 21-25 per cent. of tin was preferred for casting domestic utensils and other articles. This was due obviously to its easy fusibility ; as bronze containing 8-12 per cent. tin, which possesses much greater strength but higher melting point, was employed to a much less extent. Casting in closed moulds or \*cire perdue\* process was extensively practised. ### [c15.s2.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.24) Brass appears to have been introduced in Northern India quite early, probably through Chinese trade ; but it was later manufactured in India also, by heating copper with calamine and carbonaceous matter. The early specimens with irregular composition were probably made by smelting of mixed ores of copper and zinc, such as exist in China and Sikkim. The later objects having regular composition (13% zinc) were probably manufactured by the calamine method. ### [c15.s2.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.25) A white alloy of nickel and copper was also in use for coinage, jewellery and fancy goods, as the analysis of certain specimens shows. It is identical with the old Chinese alloy, \*paitung\*, meaning white copper, which was prepared by the smelting of the mixed ores of copper and nickel such as exist in the province of Honan. This alloy was also introduced in India like brass at a quite early date, but appears to have fallen into disuse after the first century B.C. ### [c15.s2.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.26) Solders have also been recovered from some of the copper and bronze vessels found at Taxila. The results of their analysis show that lead and its alloy with tin in equal proportions were used for ordinary soldering. ### [c15.s2.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.27) Excavations at Taxila have also yielded a large variety of silver wares, as well as an abundance of silver and gold jewellery. They may be said to date from the 3rd century B.C. to the 3rd century A.D. ### [c15.s2.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.28) Most of the jewellery from Taxila was made with the help of copper and bronze moulds or dies on which the gold or silver sheeting could be hammered out. The art of granulation and filigree, as well as that of incrusting jewellery with gems, were known to the metal-workers of Taxila in the 1st century A D, as several jewellery articles of that period with such ornamental designs have been found at the excavation ### [c15.s2.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.29) 'The discoveries at Taxila leave no doubt that metal industries flourished in India in the first millenium B.C. and that the metallurgical skill had attained a high level during this epoch. ### [c15.s2.30](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.30) \[Figure: Fig 26 Prehistoric Antiquities in Tinnevelly Iron swords and daggers (Annual Report, \*Archaeological Survey of India\*, 1902-3, P 132)\] ### [c15.s2.31](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.31) Dealing with the specimens of iron in ancient India reference may first be made to the large number of iron implements and weapons in the form of swords, daggers, tridents, spears, javelins, arrows, spades, hangers, lamps, beam-rods and tripods, unearthed during the excavations of numerous burial sites in the gravelly mounds of the Tinnevelly district of the Madras Presidency, particularly at Adittanathur. These, as previously stated, are probably the product of the 4th century B.C. (Fig. 26). ### [c15.s2.32](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.32) Many iron implements and weapons, belonging mostly to the Sunga and the Kushan periods, and a few of the Gupta period, have also been discovered in the excavations at Bangarh, already referred to. Mention may also be made here of many metallic objects, mostly of iron, found in large numbers by excavations at Taxila in 1943-45. These belong probably to the period extending from the 3rd century B.C. to the 5th century A.D. These consist mostly of household utensils, arms and armour, carpenter's and blacksmith's tools, agricultural implements, etc., besides numerous ingots of iron (Figs. 27, 27 \*a\*, \*b\*, \*c\*, \*d\*, and \*e\*). Iron pieces in the form of spear-head, spike and nails, found on excavation at Piprahwa in the Basti district of Uttar Pradesha, near the ruins at Kapilavastu and the frontier of Nepal, are regarded as specimens belonging to the 2nd century A.D. Iron clamps, found at the Bodh-Gaya temple (Fig. 28), and the iron slag, found on excavation of the foundation of the stupa at the same place and now preserved in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, furnish evidences regarding the knowledge of the process of manufacturing iron in ancient India as early as the 3rd century B.C. ### [c15.s2.33](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.33) The famous iron pillar (Fig. 29) near Delhi by the side of the Kutab Minar, which, from a consideration of the script and the text of the inscription on the pillar, is believed to have been constructed sometime in the early 4th century A.D. during the reign of the King Chandravarman of Pushkarana, Rajputana, as a pillar of victory. According to the historians, the pillar was first erected on Mount Vishnupada (probably at Mathura-), as given in the inscription; it was afterwards removed to its present site by the king Anangapala II in or about 1050 A.D., when he rebuilt the city of Delhi. The pillar is about 24 ft. l 16.4 in. in diameter at the bottom and 12 in. in diamete top. The engraved capital at the top is 3 ft. 6 in. in length. The weight of the pillar has been estimated to exceed 6 tons. Analysis of the specimens of the material of the pillar has proved that it is made of wrought iron without any alloy. Specific gravity of the metal, as given by Hadfield, is 7·81, that of the purest wrought iron being 7.84. The results of his analysis, as given in the Journal of the Iron and Steel Industries, are : ### [c15.s2.34](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.34) Iron, 99.720 ; carbon, 0·080 ; silicon, 0.046, sulphur, 0.006 ; phosphorus, 0·114 : manganese, — per cent. ### [c15.s2.35](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.35) Absence of manganese is significant. Low percentage of sulphur indicates the use of charcoal as fuel, as also the purity of the ore. The pillar has wonderfully withstood the influence of rain and air for over fifteen centuries without giving any sign of rust formation. It has been suggested that possibly high phosphorus and low sulphur and manganese content has contributed somehow to its strikingly high corrosion resistance. There might be some truth in it, for in the absence of a second metal the possibility of the formation of galvanic couple is not realized, which constitutes one of the most fundamental conditions for rusting to occur. Or, there might be a thin protective film of magnetic oxide (Fe₃O₄), produced on the surface of the pillar by treatment like heating and quenching after being painted with a mixture of different salts and organic substances. There are evidences of iron being subjected to such treatment for improvement of their quality in some of the ancient alchemical treatises. Expert observers of all classes are of opinion that this pillar presents an indisputable and permanent record of marvellous metallurgical skill and engineering ability of the ancient Indian workers, which can reasonably claim unstinted admiration even of our present time. According to the opinion of the experts the pillar was constructed by welding short pieces of wrought iron previously forged into shapes. The Committee of the Iron and Steel Institute in 1872, which made special enquiries with regard to this pillar, came to the conclusion that iron blooms of about 80 lbs. weight each, produced in a primitive blast This page appears to be entirely blank, with no visible text, headings, figures, or page furniture to transcribe. ### [c15.s2.36](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.36) Fig. 27. Iron objects at Taxila (Marshall, \*Taxila\*, Vol. III, 1951). ### [c15.s2.37](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.37) Fig. 27a Cooking pots, bowls, dishes, tripod stands, etc. at Taxila (Marshall, \*Taxila\*, Vol III, 1951 ). ### [c15.s2.38](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.38) Fig. 27b. Wheeled brazier (Marshall, \*Taxila\*, Vol. III, 1951). ### [c15.s2.39](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.39) Fig. 27c Swords, daggers and spears (Marshall, Taxila, Vol. III, 1951) ### [c15.s2.40](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.40) Fig. 27d. Tools—Carpenters' and blacksmiths' (Marshall, \*Taxila\*, Vol. III, 1951). ### [c15.s2.41](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.41) Fig. 27c Tongs, scissors, pliers etc. (Marshall, \*Taxila\*, Vol III, 1951). ### [c15.s2.42](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.42) Fig 28. Iron clamps at Bodh-gaya (Neogi, \*Iron in Ancient India\*). ### [c15.s2.43](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.43) Fig. 29. Iron pillar at Delhi ### [c15.s2.44](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.44) furnace, were welded together in successive lumps to form the pillar. For, it is not easy even in modern times to forge in a single column such an enormous mass of iron, as represents the Delhi Pillar. ### [c15.s2.45](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.45) Iron clamps and beams have been extensively used in the joining of long projecting cornices and roof-stones of the magnificent temple at Bhuvaneswar, which is believed to have been constructed in A.D. 640. ### [c15.s2.46](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.46) Iron produced in ancient India was mostly wrought iron. For, with charcoal as fuel usually employed, the temperature inside the furnace could not have been high enough to melt the metal and thus to ensure absorption of carbon for the production of cast iron. At the low temperature thus prevailing in the furnace, the whole of the ore used, however, was never completely reduced, and a considerable portion escaped reduction. The metal was obtained in the form of a pasty mass or bloom, which was then brought under the hammer to be shaped into bars. The furnace employed was obviously of a very crude type, probably a large hole in the ground over which was built up a circular chimney or shaft with sand and clay; air might be forced into the furnace from the bottom by means of a hand bellow made of goat, sheep or buffalo skin furnished with bamboo tubes. The furnace might have been provided with two openings at the bottom, one for the blast of air and the other for the exit of the slag. Ore and charcoal were piled up in the furnace to start with. ### [c15.s2.47](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.47) Steel has been prepared and used in India from remote ages. There is no dearth of evidences regarding the high quality of Indian iron and steel of ancient and medieval times. Thus Ktesias, who was at the Court of Persia in the 5th century B.C., mentions two remarkable swords of Indian steel presented to him by the king of Persia and his mother. The Periplus also mentions that in the 1st century A.D. Indian iron and steel were being exported from Africa to Abyssinia. Numerous stone inscriptions of Emperor Asoka, so nicely and precisely executed, suggest the use of fine steel implements in India in the fourth century B.C. A large number of surgical instruments described in the Ayurvedic treatise of Susruta also furnish indisputable evidence in support of this view. J. M. Heath, in an article (\*Journal of Royal Asiatic Society\*, 1839, Vol. V, 395) refers to the fact that according to Quintus Curtius a present of steel weighing about 30 lb. was made to Alexander the Great by the Indian Chief, Porus, whose country he had invaded. Obviously, steel must have been regarded as an article of great value in those days. It is believed that the Indian steel was exported to the Western Countries as early as about 2000 years ago. This was known in Europe by the name of \*wootz\* It appears that \*wootz\* has been prepared in India from ancient times in Hyderabad (Deccan), Mysore, Salem and other parts of the Madras Presidency. This was the metal from which the famous Damascus blades were prepared. The Indians of those days were noted for their skill in the tempering of steel, and it was from them that the secret of the operation was learnt by the Persians and, through them, by the Arabs. ### [c15.s2.48](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.48) Steel was produced in ancient India by a process resembling the modern \*cementation\* or \*crucible\* process Wrought iron prepared directly from magnetic iron ore, as already stated, formed the starting material. This was heated in closed crucibles with dry wood chips, stems and leaves of plants over charcoal fire maintained by blowing air with large bellows. The operation was completed in 4–5 hours' time, whereas the modern cementation process takes 6–7 days The steel first obtained was heated again in closed crucibles whereby the excess of carbon was burnt off. Sometimes water was poured on the hot metal, which was thus hardened on being quenched That this gives a correct account of the process in vogue in those early days can be assumed in all probability from the fact that steel was produced by this traditional method, though on a smaller scale, even in the 18th and in the beginning of the 19th century. The well-known conservatism of the Indian people must have served as a strong safeguard against any appreciable change of the original process. We thus find that the knowledge of the cementation process for making steel was acquired by the ancient Indian workers even before the beginning of the Christian era. ### [c15.s2.49](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.49) Varahamihira (circa 550 A.D.) has also given some empirical recipes about the hardening of steel (\*sastrapāna\*) : ### [c15.s2.50](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.50) (1) Plunge the steel, red-hot, into a solution of plantain ashes in whey, kept standing for twenty-four hours ; then sharpen on the lathe. ### [c15.s2.51](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.51) (2) Make a paste with the juice of the plant \*arka\* (\*Calotropis gigantea\*), the gelatine from the horn of the sheep, and the dung of the pigeon and the mouse ; apply it to the steel after rubbing the latter with sesame oil. Plunge the steel thus treated into fire ; and when it is red hot, sprinkle on it water or the milk of horse (camel or goat), or ghee (clarified butter), or blood, or fat, or bile. Then sharpen on the lathe.—(Varahamihira, \*Khargalakshanam\* Chap. XLIX, slokas 23,—26). ### [c15.s2.52](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.52) Dyes and Paints ### [c15.s2.53](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.53) Among the dyes or colours used by the ancient Indians we find mention of indigo (\*nila\*), lac (\*laksha\*), turmeric (\*halidda\*), maddar (\*menjetthi\*) and resin (\*rajana\*) in a passage in Samyutta Nikaya (part III, p. 152) where Buddha makes an incidental reference to them. The great Sanskrit grammarian, Panini (c. 500 B.C.) also makes mentions of indigo, lac and red-ochre for dyeing cloth (IV. I, 42 ). The Vinaya text of the Buddhists also describes six sources of dyes for robes : viz., dyes made from roots, trunks, barks, leaves, flowers and fruits of trees. The dye is extracted from these raw materials and the robes are dyed in a dyeing trough (M. VII. 10, 1). Early in the sixth century Varahamihira in the Vrihat Samhita alludes to the preparation of fast dyes for textile fabrics by the treatment of natural dyes like \*manjishtha\* with alum and other chemicals (e.g. sulphate of iron), as also with cow-dung : ### [c15.s2.54](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.54) “\*Tubari\* (alum) \*manjishtha\* (maddar) \*ragabandhini\* (colour-binding)” ; i.e., alum binds the colour of maddar. ### [c15.s2.55](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.55) It is well known that alum and sulphate of iron are now largely used as mordants in dyeing. ### [c15.s2.56](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.56) Contents of an ink-pot recovered at Taxila were found on examination by the archæological chemist to contain black carbon mixed with earth. This provides an instance of the use of carbon ink in the Kushan period (\*Archæological Report\*, 1929, 30, 209). ### [c15.s2.57](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.57) According to some authorities ink was used in India already during the 4th century B.C. The relic-vase of the stupa of Andher, believed to be of the second century B.C., contains inscriptions written with ink on its surface. ### [c15.s2.58](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.58) The Kharosthi documents from Khotan also illustrate the use of ink at least in the first century A.D.. Painted inscriptions in the caves at Ajanta serve as an illustration of the use of coloured inks Red lead and cinnabar (\*hingula\*) were also used as inks. In those early days ink was used for writing on palm-leaf and birch-bark, as the use of paper was unknown. Some of the ancient manuscripts written on palm-leaf and birch-birk, now preserved in various museums and libraries, have been found on examination to be written with indelible black ink. ### [c15.s2.59](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.59) Cosmetics ### [c15.s2.60](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.60) In the Vrihat Samhita there is also some allusion to hair dyes, cosmetics, frankincense and scents. There is a chapter on perfumery where various recipes for artificial imitation of natural flower scents such as the essence of \*vakula\*, \*utpala\*, \*champaka\*, etc, are given, and compound scents are arranged in a sort of scale according to the proportions of certain basic scents used in combination for their preparation. ### [c15.s2.61](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.61) Cements ### [c15.s2.62](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.62) Vrihat Samhita also describes several preparations of cements or powders called \*vajra-lepa\* which means literally "paints or coatings as strong as the thunder-bolt", and \*vajra-samghaṭa\* meaning "composition as hard as the thunder-bolt". ### [c15.s2.63](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.63) There was ample use for these in the temple architecture of the Buddhistic period, the remains of which bear testimony to the adamantine strength of these cements. From the description given for their preparation and use they are to be regarded respectively as rock-cements (\*vajra-lepa\*) and metal-cements (\*vajra-samghata\*). ### [c15.s2.64](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.64) The process for the preparation of \*vajra-lepa\* or rock-cements consists in making a concentrated aqueous extract of finely ground fruits, seeds, flowers and barks of plants rich in gummy and resinous substances. This is then again mixed up with naturally occurring resins and resinous substances and made into a paste. The paste is to be heated and applied to the walls of temples and houses for residential purposes. It is stated that this cement will make the things on which it is applied last for a thousand years. In some preparations of \*vajra-lepa\* an addition of mercury has also been recommended. ### [c15.s2.65](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.65) In another recipe levigated powder of lac, resinous substances and resin, gummy fruits and plant bodies are made into a decoction with water and then concentrated. This is applied hot. ### [c15.s2.66](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.66) In a third recipe for \*vajra-lepa\*, directions are given for making a concentrated extract of animal matters rich in glue or gelatine, such as horns and skins of cows, buffaloes and goats, hairs of ass, mixed with juice of trees like nimba and plantain. The cement is to be finally prepared in the manner, previously described. ### [c15.s2.67](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.67) The cement \*vajra-samghata\*, as given in the Vrihat Samhita, is to be compounded of 8 parts of lead, 2 parts of bell-metal and 1 part of brass, melted and poured hot. It is stated that when this type of cement is applied to temples, etc., they last for 1000 years or thereabout. This is obviously a metal-cement (Maya's cement). ### [c15.s2.68](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.68) Gems and Precious Stones ### [c15.s2.69](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.69) The use and knowledge of gems and precious stones were known to the early Indians. Mention is made of them in the earliest writings of the Hindus Vedas speak of them; they seem to play a prominent part in the mythologies, traditions, poems and legends. A frequent mention of stones and pearls occurs in the great epics Mahabharata and Ramayana, where they have been described for use as jewels for kings and rich people. In the Vrihat Samhita of Varahamihira there are chapters on precious stones. ### [c15.s2.70](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.70) ¹ M. M. Nagar. \*U. P. Information\*, 1949, August 15, p 79. ### [c15.s2.71](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.71) ² J. Marshall: \*Sanchi and its Monuments\*. ### [c15.s2.72](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.72) ³ " : \*Taxila Pottery, Ancient India\* 1947, p. 74; \*Taxila, Archaeological Survey Report\*, 1935-36; \*Taxila\*, Cambridge University Press, Vol. I-III, 1951. ### [c15.s2.73](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.73) ⁴ A. Ghosh: \*Excavations at Taxila, Ancient India\*, 1948, p 41. ### [c15.s2.74](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.74) ⁵ A. Ghosh and A. Pannigrahi. \*Ahichchhatra Pottery, Ancient India\*, 1946 (1). ### [c15.s2.75](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.75) ⁶ J Marshall. \*Excavations at Bhita; Archaeological Survey Report\*, 1911-12. p. 82, 84. ### [c15.s2.76](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2.76) ⁷ Krishna Das and R. E. M. Wheeler: \*The Northern Black Ware, Ancient India\*, 1946. \\* A B Keith, \*History of Sanskrit Literature\*, 1945, p 469. \* Hazra, \*Puranic Records\*, 1940 --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2) · Pramāṇa