[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Science, technology and education](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science) › [History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956) › c15 # History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c15: Bibliography History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c15 - **Language:** English ## Contents - [c15.s1 Bibliography](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1) — 93 parts - [c15.s2 Metallurgy and Working of Metals](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s2) — 76 parts - [c15.s3 Bibliography](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s3) — 1 part ### Bibliography ### [c15.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.1) | 1 | H T. Colebrooke | \*English Translation of Samkhya-karika\*, Bombay, 1887. | | 2. | H. H. Wilson . | Do Do | | 3 | A A Macdonell . | \*History of Sanskrit Literature.\* | | 4 | B. N Seal . | \*Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus\*, Calcutta. | | 5 | P. C. Ray . | \*History of Hindu Chemistry\*—Vol. I, London, 1907 and Vol. II, Calcutta, 1925. | ### [c15.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.2) Chemistry in Kautilya ### [c15.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.3) Ayurveda means science of life; and it is believed that Atharvaveda, which deals with recipes for prolongation of life, has given birth to it. Hence, by many authorities Ayurveda is regarded as a subsidiary branch of the Atharvan, and, as such, a revealed production like the Vedas themselves. There is little evidence of any notable addition to the knowledge and practice of chemistry since the days of the Atharvaveda to the time of Gautama Buddha. The post-Vedic period of Brahmanas and Upanishads was, however, conspicuous, as already stated, by the development of philosophical doctrines which ultimately culminated in the building up of the six systems of Hindu philosophies. Theories relating to the origin, constitution and structure of matter, as we have seen, were formulated in some of these philosophies. It may, therefore, be stated that the ancient Indians or Hindus made a significant contribution to the work of constructing scientific concepts and methods in the investigation of physical phenomena, which they freely applied to the development of medicine and chemistry. Their position in this respect can in no way be regarded as inferior to that of the Greeks. ### [c15.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.4) In the Atharvaveda, which deals with recipes for longevity and cure of diseases, we find the empirical basis or seeds of alchemy and medicine. These along with other practical arts were increasingly developed in the following ages. For instance, there is a passage in Samyutta-Nikaya (pt. III, p. 152) where Buddha is described to refer incidentally to a number of vegetable substances used by the dyers or painters for preparing dyes and colours. These are:—(\*a\*) resin (\*rajana\*), (\*b\*) lac (\*lakha\*), (\*c\*) turmeric (\*halidda\*), (\*d\*) indigo (\*nili\*) and (\*e\*) maddar (\*manjutthi\*). ### [c15.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.5) The earliest and most authentic record of informations relating to the knowledge of chemistry, metallurgy and medicine of these early days is found in the Arthashastra (Treatise on Polity) of Kautilya which gives a magnificent account of the political, social, industrial, civil and military organizations of the 4th century B.C. (321-296 B.C.). Kautilya or Chanakya was the well-known prime minister of the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta and is reported to be the Indian Machiavelli. ### [c15.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.6) A very comprehensive account of ores, minerals and metals with their extraction and working, as well as of alloys, is found in the Arthashastra. ### [c15.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.7) A summary of the description of the ores of gold, silver, copper, lead, tin and iron, as found in the Arthashastra, is given here: ### [c15.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.8) \*Gold Ores\*:—"These are obtained from plains or slopes of mountains, and are either yellow, or reddish yellow, or as red as copper in colour. They are marked with spots like drop of curd and resplendent as turmeric, yellow myrobolan, petals of a lotus, aquatic plant. the liver or the spleen. These ores are as yellow as ripe turmeric, sulphide of arsenic (\*haritala\*), honeycomb and vermilion. They are very heavy. There is a sandy layer within them and they contain globular masses. when roasted they do not split but emit much foam and smoke. (This indicates the presence of organic matter) They are used to form amalgams with copper and silver". That is they are made use of in converting copper or silver into gold This furnishes evidence of the practice of alchemy in Kautilya's time. (82)∗ ### [c15.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.9) ∗ Numbers within parenthesis refer to pages of the original Sanskrit text Passages within inverted comas are the translations made by Shamasastry. ### [c15.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.10) \*Silver Ores\*:—"Silver ores have the colour of conch-shell, camphor, alum, butter, a pigeon, turtle-dove, or the neck of a peacock. They are resplendent as opal (\*sasyaka\*), agate (\*gomedaka\*), cane sugar and granulated sugar. They may have also the colour of the flower of kovidara (\*Bauhinia variegata\*), of lotus. of patalī (\*Stereospermum suaveolens\*), of kalaya (a kind of \*Phaseolus\*), of flax. These ores may occur in combination with lead or iron. When roasted they do not split but emit much foam and smoke. The heavier the ores the greater will be the quantity of metal in them." (82) ### [c15.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.11) \*Copper Ores\* :—"These are obtained from plains or slopes of mountains. They are heavy, greasy, soft, tawny, green, dark, bluish yellow (\*harita\*), pale red, or red." (83) ### [c15.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.12) The description seems to refer to copper pyrites (yellow), cuprite (red) and malachite (green). ### [c15.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.13) \*Lead Ores\* :—"Lead ores have the colour of kakamechaka (\*Solanum indicum\*), pigeon, or cow's bile, are marked with white lines and possess smell like raw meat." (83) ### [c15.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.14) \*Tin Ores\* —"These are as variegated in colour as saline soil or have the colour of burnt lump of earth." (83) ### [c15.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.15) \*Iron Ores\* .—"These are of orange colour, or pale red, or of the colour of the flower of sinduvara (\*Vitex trifolia\*)." (83) ### [c15.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.16) Dealing with the qualifications of the officer who will be in charge of conducting mining operations and manufacture Kautilya gives the following instructions: ### [c15.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.17) "The superintendent of mines should possess knowledge of the science dealing with copper and other minerals; he should have experience in the art of distillation and condensation of mercury and of testing gems. Aided by experts in mineralogy and provided with mining labourers and necessary instruments he shall examine mines which, on account of their containing mineral excrement, crucibles, charcoal and ashes, may appear to have been once exploited, or which may be newly discovered on plains or mountain slopes possessing mineral ores, the richness of which can be ascertained by weight, depth of colour, piercing smell and taste." ### [c15.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.18) "The superintendent of metals (\*lohadhyakshah\*) shall carry on the manufacture of copper, lead, tin, brass (\*arakuta\*), bronze (\*kamsya\*), sulphide of arsenic (\*haritala\*), and also of commodities from them". (84) ### [c15.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.19) Loha is used as a general name for metals. ### [c15.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.20) "The superintendent of mint shall carry on the manufacture of silver coins made up of four parts of copper, eleven parts of silver and one part of any of the metals iron (\*tīkshna\*), tin (\*trapu\*) or lead (\*sīsa\*)". (84) ### [c15.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.21) "Copper coins shall be made up of four parts of silver, eleven parts of copper and one part of iron (\*tīkshna\*) or any other metal." (84) ### [c15.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.22) Treatment of Ores and Metals ### [c15.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.23) "The impurities of ores, whether superficial or inseparably combined with them, can be got rid of and the metal melted when the ores are treated (chemically) with iron (\*tīkshna\*), alkalies (plant ashes), etc. " (82) ### [c15.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.24) Recipes are also given about the softening of metals, which are rather difficult to account for. ### [c15.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.25) "Metals are rendered soft when they are treated with the ashes of certain plants and cereals, or with the milk of both cow and the sheep Brittle metals are rendered soft when thrice soaked in a mixture made up of honey, sheep's milk, sesamum oil, clarified butter, jaggery, ferment (\*kinva\*) and mushroom." (83) ### [c15.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.26) A rather detailed description of the properties of gold and silver, and of their working has been given by Kautilya. ### [c15.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.27) "Gold may be obtained either pure or amalgamated with mercury or silver, or alloyed with other impurities as mine gold." (85) ### [c15.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.28) "That which is of the colour of the petals of lotus, ductile, glossy, incapable of making any continuous sound, and glittering, is the best. That which is reddish yellow is of middle quality; and that which is red is of low quality" (85) ### [c15.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.29) "Impure gold is of whitish colour. It shall be fused with lead four times the quantity of the impurity When gold is rendered brittle owing to its contamination with lead, it shall be heated with dry cow-dung, when it splits into pieces owing to hardness. It shall be drenched (after heating) into oil mixed with cow-dung.” (86) ### [c15.30](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.30) “Mine gold, which is brittle owing to its contamination with lead, shall be heated wrapped with cloth and hammered on a wooden anvil. Or, it may be drenched in a mixture of mushroom and vajrakhand (\*Euphorbia antiquorum\*).” (86) ### [c15.31](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.31) “Silver, which is white, ductile and glossy, is the best; and that which is of the reverse quality is bad.” (86) ### [c15.32](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.32) “Impure silver should be heated with lead of one-fourth the quantity of the impurity. ### [c15.33](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.33) That which becomes full of globules, white, glowing and of the colour of curd is pure.” (86) ### [c15.34](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.34) This indicates that the knowledge of the purification of gold and silver by alloying with lead was known in Kautilya's time. This is comparable to the modern process of cupellation. ### [c15.35](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.35) “When from one to sixteen \*kakanis\* of gold in a pure specimen of the metal (of sixteen \*mashakas\*) are replaced by from one to sixteen \*kakanis\* of copper so that the copper is inseparably alloyed with the whole mass of the remaining quantity of the gold, the sixteen varieties of the standard of the purity of gold will be obtained.” (86) ### [c15.36](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.36) This may be compared to the modern system of expressing the standard of purity of gold by carat numbers. Description is also given for testing the purity of gold by means of touch-stone. ### [c15.37](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.37) Working of Gold and Silver ### [c15.38](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.38) “Three kinds of ornamental work with gold have been described by Kautilya. These are named \*kshepana\*, \*guna\* and \*kshudra\*.” ### [c15.39](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.39) “By \*kshepana\* is meant the setting of jewels or glass beads (\*kacha\*) in gold.” ### [c15.40](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.40) “The process by which threads or wires are drawn from the metal is termed \*guna\*.” ### [c15.41](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.41) "Solid and hollow work, and the manufacture of beads with a rounded orifice is termed \*kshudra\* (literally low or ordinary work)." \[87 ### [c15.42](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.42) The mention of \*kacha\* 'glass' here indicates that the knowledge of making glass was known in Kautilya's time. ### [c15.43](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.43) "For setting jewels in gold, five parts of pure gold and two parts of gold alloyed with four parts of copper or silver shall be the required quantity." \[88 ### [c15.44](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.44) "For silver articles, either solid or hollow, silver may be mixed with half of the amount of gold." \[88, ### [c15.45](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.45) "Pure gold combined with an equal quantity of lead and heated with rock salt to the melting point under dry cow-dung becomes the basis of gold alloys of blue, red, white, yellow, parrot and pigeon colours." \[88 ### [c15.46](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.46) 'The colouring ingredient of gold is one \*kakani\* of \*tikshna\*, which is of the colour of the neck of peacock, tinged with white, and which is dazzling and full of copper." \[88, ### [c15.47](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.47) \*Tikshna\* here obviously refers to copper sulphate partially dehydrated. The resulting product is a gold-copper alloy. ### [c15.48](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.48) "Pure or impure silver may be heated four times with copper sulphate mixed with powdered bone (\*asthituttha\*), again four times with an equal quantity of lead, again four times with dry copper sulphate (\*sushkatuttha\*), again three times in skull and lastly twice in cow-dung." \[88, ### [c15.49](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.49) Heating silver with lead in skull, which consists mainly of calcium phosphate, practically resembles the cupellation process for the purification of silver. ### [c15.50](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.50) Kautilya describes further the preparation of a large variety of gold alloys with different quantities of copper and silver. The process of assaying has also been mentioned and stressed upon. ### [c15.51](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.51) Pure gold has been defined as follows: ### [c15.52](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.52) “Uniform in colour, equal in the colour of its test streak to that of the standard gold, devoid of air holes, ductile, very smooth, free from alloying elements, pleasing when worn as an ornament, glittering but not dazzling, and pleasing to the mind and eyes.”\ ### [c15.53](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.53) Various types of working for the manufacture of gold and silver articles are defined as : ### [c15.54](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.54) “Compact work (\*ghana\*), compact and hollow work (\*ghana-sushira\*), soldering (\*samyuhya\*) amalgamation (\*avale-pya\*), enclosing (\*samghatya\*), and gilding (\*vasitakam\*).”\ ### [c15.55](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.55) A description of false balances for the weighing of gold is also given in the Arthashastra. ### [c15.56](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.56) “According to this, balances may be made to give false weights by bending of the arms; by the provision of a high helm or pivot; by means of a broken head or of a hollow neck; by use of lead strings, bad cups or pans; by making them crooked or shaky; or by fixing a magnet in the body.”\ ### [c15.57](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.57) Kautilya further gives a graphic account of the methods employed by the goldsmiths for the adulteration and stealing of gold by substituting baser metals for it. ### [c15.58](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.58) “Folding either firm or loose is practised in soldering, in preparing amalgams, and in enclosing (a piece of base metal with two pieces of a superior metal).”\ ### [c15.59](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.59) “When a lead piece is firmly covered over with gold-leaf by means of wax, the process is termed as firm folding.”\ ### [c15.60](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.60) “In amalgams a single or double layer of a superior metal is made to cover a piece of a base metal. Copper or silver may also be placed between two leaves of a superior metal. A copper piece may be covered over with a gold-leaf, the surfaces and edges being smoothed; similarly a piece of any base metal may be covered over with double leaf of copper or silver, the surfaces and the edges being smothered.”\ ### [c15.61](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.61) In a chapter on the examination of gems that are to be admitted into the treasury we find in Kautilya a description of the several varieties of pearls and other gems viz, diamond, coral, sapphire, ruby, emerald, opal, etc. The methods for examining the quality of these precious stones have also been given. (75, 76, 77) ### [c15.62](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.62) At another place we find that "the superintendent of ocean-mines shall attend to the collection of conch-shells, diamonds, precious stones, pearls, corals, and salt (\*kshara\*), and also regulate the commerce in the above commodities" (84) ### [c15.63](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.63) Various types of salts have been distinguished by Kautilya; viz. \*saindhava\*, derived from the country of Sindhu, \*samudra\*, produced from sea-water; \*bida\*; \*yavakshara\*, literally ashes of barley (potash), but often employed for nitre: \*sauvarchala\*, derived from the country of Suvarchala; \*udbhedaja\*, that which is extracted from the saline soil (94) ### [c15.64](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.64) Kautilya gives instances of acids in liquid form, e.g curds, acids prepared from grains and the like (evidently by fermentation). (95) ### [c15.65](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.65) Extraction of oils from linseed, seeds of nimba (\*Azadirachta indica\*), sesamum, ingudi (\*Balanites roxburghii\*), etc. has been mentioned. (96) ### [c15.66](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.66) Kautilya states further that charcoal and chaff obtained as waste products in the preparation of many food materials may be given over for iron-smelting and lime-kiln (\*bhattilepya\*). (97) ### [c15.67](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.67) Fermented Liquors ### [c15.68](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.68) In a chapter defining the duties of the superintendent of liquor Kautilya writes: ### [c15.69](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.69) "By employing such men as are acquainted with the manufacture of liquor and ferments (\*kinva\*), the superintendent of liquor shall carry on liquor traffic not only in forts and country part (shops), but also in camps." . (119) ### [c15.70](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.70) Various kinds of liquors described are. ### [c15.71](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.71) \*Medaka, prasanna, asava, arista, maireya\*, and \*madhu\*. (120) ### [c15.72](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.72) \*Medaka\* is prepared from the fermentation of rice; \*prasanna\* from the fermentation of flour with the addition of spices and the fruits of \*putraka\* (a species of tree in the country of Kamrupa). \*Asava\* is the liquor derived from the fermentation of sugar mixed with honey Jaggery mixed with powder of long and black pepper or with the powder of \*triphala\* (mixture of \*Terminalia chebula\*, \*Terminalia belerica\*, and \*Phyllanthus emblica\*), when fermented, forms \*maireya\*. Fermented grape juice is termed \*madhu\*. The preparation of different kinds of \*arishta\* for different diseases can be learnt from the physicians. ### [c15.73](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.73) \*Kinva\* or ferment is prepared from boiled or unboiled paste of \*masha\* (\*Phaseolus radiatus\*), rice and \*morata\* (\*Alangium salvifolium\*) and the like. ### [c15.74](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.74) "The liquor that is manufactured from mango fruits may contain a greater proportion of mango essence or of spices. It is called \*mahasura\* when it contains \*sambhara\* (spices) " (121) ### [c15.75](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.75) It is interesting to note that Kautilya writes that all varieties of liquor other than that used for the king are taxable with 5 per cent as toll. These include acid drinks prepared from fruits (\*phalamla\*) and spirit distilled from molasses (\*amla sidhu\*) But on the occasion of festivals, fairs (\*samaja\*) and pilgrimage it is permissible to manufacture liquor for four days (\*chaturahassaurikah\*)—liberty to drink liquor without limit). (121) ### [c15.76](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.76) From a survey of the informations contained in the Arthashastra, so far as it concerns us, we find that there was a considerable advancement in the knowledge of metals and their working Methods for the large scale production of metals like gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead and mercury and of alloys like brass, bronze, and those of gold and silver with baser metals were known. Large varieties of minerals, ores, gems and precious stones have been described in detail in his treatise by Kautilya. Knowledge of the fermentation process reached also a fairly advanced character. The description of silver, tin and mercury ores, which are till now not known to occur in India, seems to suggest their importation from neighbouring countries. Sulphide of mercury (hingul) was possibly obtained from China, tin-stone from Malaya and Persia, and silver ores from Afghanistan and Persia. It should be noted that Kautilya has prescribed severe penalties for goldsmiths who would fraudulently adulterate gold articles or gold coins with baser metals, or try to pass baser metals as gold by folding or amalgamating them with gold-leaves. This indicates that alchemy received little favour or credence in Kautilya's time. ### [c15.77](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.77) 1. Kautilya's \*Arthashastra\*: Translated by R. Shamasastry, Mysore, 1929. ### [c15.78](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.78) CHAPTER IV ### [c15.79](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.79) Chemistry in the Charaka and the Susruta ### [c15.80](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.80) We now come to a time when the Hindu system of medicine was methodised and arranged more or less on a rational basis, with a scientific terminology. The two earliest and most renowned treatises of the period are the Charaka and the Susruta, by sages of the same names, dealing respectively with medicine and surgery in the main. They constitute the repositories of many chemical informations of the time. These treatises, usually known as the Charaka Samhita and the Susruta Samhita, passed through repeated recensions by later and more advanced workers. ### [c15.81](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.81) There is much controversy about the age of the Charaka and the Susruta. According to the Chinese version of the Tripitaka a physician named Charaka was attached to the court of the Indo-Scythian King Kanishka who reigned in the second century A.D. According to certain authorities, particularly M. Sylvain Levi, the authorship of the treatise Charaka Samhita is attributed to this Charaka. But it should also be noted that the appellation of Charaka occurs in Vedic literature as a patronymic one. The theories and discussions in the Charaka and the Susruta, particularly in the Charaka, are based on the doctrines of the Samkhya system of philosophy, combined with a methodology derived from the Nyaya-Vaiseshika system. The Charaka, however, is not so systematic as the Susruta, but indulges often in random and irrelevant discourses. In the Charaka Samhita we find that the author is inordinately fond of metaphysical disquisitions in preference to experiments and observations. The Susruta in this respect is far more scientific than the Charaka. This indicates that of the two, the Charaka is by far the more ancient. Again we find only Vedic gods and \*mantras\* to figure in the Charaka which follows closely the authority of the Vedas. The simple unvarnished prose of the Charaka reminds one of the Brahmanas of the Vedas Between the period of the Atharvaveda and that of the Charaka there must have been composed several medical treatises, each reflecting the spirit and progress of the age. Charaka himself records that he simply based his work on that of Agnivesa, which he completely recast and remodelled. At the time of Charaka there existed at least six standard works by Agnivesa, Bhela Jatukarna, Parasara, Harita and Ksharapani respectively Thus the Charaka, as we now possess it, is by no means the first comprehensive and systematic treatise of Hindu medicine: it represents rather a fairly developed state of the subject. There are chapters in the Charaka Samhita which suggest that it seems to record the deliberations of a congress of medical experts. This is best illustrated by the chapter in the Charaka on "Discourse on the Tastes." ### [c15.82](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.82) The compilatory character of the Charaka is more or less evident from its chapters which often overlap in their content It appears to have gathered, sifted and brought into a definite form the informations handed down from the preceding ages ### [c15.83](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.83) Agnivesa, whose work formed the basis of the Charaka Samhita, was the disciple of Atreya who, according to a Buddhist Jataka, was a teacher of medicine in the University of Takshasila (Taxila) during the age of Buddha. ### [c15.84](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.84) From the considerations set forth above, it might be concluded that there should be little hesitation in placing the 'original work of Charaka in the early Buddhistic era though P. C. Ray in his History of Hindu Chemistry prefers to place it in the pre-Buddhistic era. Moreover. the chemical informations recorded in the Charaka, particularly with reference to metals and metallic preparations, are of less advanced character than those in the Arthashastra of Kautilya, which, as we have seen. was composed sometime between 321—296 B C. ### [c15.85](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.85) The extant Charaka is a redaction by Dridhavala of the genuine Charaka Samhita. ### [c15.86](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.86) As regards the age of the Susruta, the evidences are, however, comparatively definite. Its terminology and technique in general, do not differ much from those of the Charaka. Its style is rather dry, laconic and matter-of-fact, in contrast to the discursive and diffusive character of that of the Charaka. It aims at some systematic classification of a large amount of matter avoiding unnecessary details. This indicates a somewhat later date of its composition. The extant Susruta is generally believed to be a comparatively modern recension by the celebrated Buddhist chemist, Nagarjuna (8th century A.D.) who is said to have added the Uttaratantra or the Supplement. There is evidence that the redactor thoroughly recast and remodelled the original work of Susruta; for there are numerous passages in it, which agree almost \*verbatim\* with those found in the Charaka The Susruta is \*par excellence\* a treatise on surgery as the Charaka is on medicine proper. Susruta is said to be the disciple of Dhanvantvari In the Charaka we find a distinction drawn between "Kaya-Chikitsakas" i.e. the physicians properly so-called, and the "\*Dhanvantvari\* Sampradayas" i.e. followers of Dhanvantvari or the chirurgeons. According to a Buddhist Jataka, Susruta was a teacher in the University of Kasi (Banaras) during Buddha's time and was a younger contempor-ary of Atreya. Hence, though the original Susruta was composed somewhat later than the Charaka, there cannot be a great interval between the two. It should also be borne in mind that the extant Charaka and Susruta represent not only the chemical and therapeutical knowledge of the time of their final redaction, but they are also repositories of informations, accumulated on the subject, during the earlier periods dating back to the Vedic Age. ### [c15.87](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.87) The Charaka ### [c15.88](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.88) Charaka mentions of six metals and their calces for use as drugs. These are: gold, silver, copper, lead, tin and iron. ### [c15.89](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.89) According to Charaka all objects are the results of the combination of five elements, viz., earth, water, fire, air and ether or space. ### [c15.90](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.90) Five kinds of salts are described in the Charaka. Thees are \*sauvarchala\* (nitre), \*saindhava\* (rock salt), \*vit\* (black salt), \*audbhida\* (vegetable salt) and \*samudra\* (sea salt). ### [c15.91](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.91) Minerals like sulphate of copper, sulphate of iron, realgar, orpiment and sulphur have been prescribed in combination with vegetable drugs for use as external application in many skin diseases. ### [c15.92](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.92) Preparation of alkali (\*kshara\*) has also been described in the Charaka as follows: ### [c15.93](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.93) "A young \*Butea frondosa\* is to be cut to pieces, dried and finally reduced to ashes. The ash is lixiviated with four or six times its weight of water and strained twenty-one times through linen." ### [c15.94](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.94) This obviously gives rise to a solution of potash carbonate. ### [c15.95](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.95) Rust of iron and pyrites have also been prescribed for use as constituents of pills. ### [c15.96](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.96) Ashes of conch-shell, coral, lapis lazuli, calces of iron and copper, and sulphide of antimony have been described as ingredients of collyrium. ### [c15.97](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.97) Under the recipe of a pearl compound, there is mention of pearl, powder of iron, copper and sulphur. The metals are obviously used after being roasted with sulphur. The process is described as the \*killing of metals\*. ### [c15.98](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.98) A process has been described for treating thin sheets of iron, silver and gold with hot solutions of salts and alkali (potash carbonate) for use as drugs. ### [c15.99](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.99) In the Charaka Samhita mention has been made of the nine sources of spirituous liquor or fermented drinks. These are: cereals, fruits, roots, wood, flowers, stems (stalks), leaves, barks of plants and sugar from various sugar-yielding canes. From these, the preparation of 84 different kinds of \*asava\* (wine) has been described. The nine main classes of liquors from the nine sources, mentioned above, are named respectively as :—\*Dhanyasava\*, \*phalasava\*, \*mulasava\*, \*sarasava\*, \*pushpasava\*, \*patrasava\*, \*kandasava\*, \*tvagasava\*, and \*sarkarasava\*. ### [c15.100](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.100) According to Charaka medicines are classified under two main heads : one increases the strength and vitality of people, already healthy (\*vital elixir\*), the other cures diseases (cf. \*ayushyani\* and \*bhaishajyani\* of Atharvaveda). The former, which promotes longevity, retentive memory, health, vitality, etc., is called \*Rasayana\*, and may, therefore, be regarded as a part of alchemy. ### [c15.101](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.101) Dealing with the preparation and use of alkalies and alkaline caustics Susruta makes the following remarkable observations : ### [c15.102](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.102) "Of all cutting instruments and accessory cutting instruments, caustics are superior in as much as they perform the work of incisions, punctures and scarifications, relieve derangement of three humours and uniformly affect the diseased part to which they are applied. \*Kshara\* (caustics) are so called because they remove diseased parts and destroy the skin and flesh. They possess burning escharotic and lacerating properties. Caustics are acrid, hot and pungent. ### [c15.103](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.103) "Alkalies are of two sorts, namely, for external application and internal administration. ### [c15.104](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.104) "They are made of three different strengths (in solution), namely weak, moderate and strong." ### [c15.105](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.105) Susruta describes the preparation of these three varieties of alkali. ### [c15.106](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.106) "With due religious ceremonies some trees or plants are cut to pieces on an auspicious day in autumn by the worker. These pieces are piled in a place free from wind. Some limestone should be placed on the pile and then set on fire by stalks of a selected plant. When the fire is extinguished, the ashes of the tree and the burnt lime should be kept separate. ### [c15.107](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.107) "Thirty-two seers of ashes should be stirred or mixed with six times their quantity of water and the mixture strained ### [c15.108](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.108) through cloth. This should be repeated twenty-one times. The strained fluid should then be boiled slowly in a large pan and agitated with a ladle. When the fluid becomes clear, pungent and soapy to the feel, it should be removed from the fire and strained through cloth. The dregs being thrown away, the strained fluid should be again boiled. From this alkaline solution take three quarters of a seer. ### [c15.109](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.109) "Then take eight palas each of burnt limestone, conch-shells and bivalve shells, and heat them in an iron pan till they are of the colour of fire. Then moisten them in the same vessel with the above-mentioned three quarters of a seer of alkaline water and reduce them to powder. This powder should be thrown on sixty-four seers of the alkaline water and boiled with constant and careful agitation by the ladle. Care should be taken that the solution is neither too thick nor thin. ### [c15.110](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.110) "When reduced to proper consistence, the solution should be removed from the fire and poured into an open jar. The opening or mouth of the jar should be covered and should be kept in a secluded place. This preparation is called \*madhyama kshara\* or alkaline caustic of middling strength. ### [c15.111](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.111) "When the alkaline water is simply boiled to the proper consistence without the addition of burnt shells, etc., the preparation is called \*mridu kshara\* or mild alkaline solution. ### [c15.112](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.112) "The strong alkaline caustic, \*i.e.\*, \*tikshna kshara\* is prepared by boiling the weak solution with some dried plants in the form of powder." ### [c15.113](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.113) Obviously \*tikshna kshara\* represents concentrated caustic alkali solutions ### [c15.114](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.114) Dealing with the properties of alkali Susruta writes:— ### [c15.115](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.115) "Good alkaline caustics should be neither too strong nor too weak. They should be white in colour, smooth and soapy to the touch, should not spread beyond where they are applied, and act rapidly and successfully. These are the eight good properties of the caustics. Their bad qualities consist in their being too weak or cool, too strong or hot, too slippery and spreading, too thick or too underboiled, or they may be deficient in ingredients." ### [c15.116](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.116) Neutralization of the alkali by an acid has also been described by Susruta. ### [c15.117](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.117) "If you question, my son! how is it that the application of the pungent acid of \*kanjika\* (fermented rice water, i.e. crude vinegar) relieves the burning of the fire-like hot alkaline caustic, then hear the following explanation from me. Alkalies possess all the tastes except that of the acid. The acrid taste prevails in it and the saline one to a less degree. The sharp saline taste when mixed with acid becomes very mild, and gives up its sharp quality. From this modification of the saline taste, the pain of caustics is relieved just as fire is extinguished by water." ### [c15.118](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.118) From the description given above about the preparation of alkalies, it will be noticed that there is a distinct mention of 'mild' and 'caustic' alkalies in the body of the text. The process of lixiviating the ashes and rendering the lye caustic by the addition of lime leaves very little to improve upon and appears almost scientific. ### [c15.119](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.119) Distinction has also been made between the alkalies, \*yavakshara\* (factitious carbonate of potash) and \*sarjikakshara\* (trona or natron). Borax too has been mentioned under alkali. ### [c15.120](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.120) Susruta has dealt mostly with vegetable drugs. There is, however, one sloka in which the six metals, viz, tin, lead, copper, silver, krishna loha (iron) and gold, and their calces are also recommended for use as drugs. Among the minerals Susruta has made use of sulphate of copper, sulphate of iron, alum-earth, red ochre, realgar, etc., as medicaments for external application. ### [c15.121](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.121) Roasting of iron and other metals has been described, which is considered necessary to make them fit for internal administration. ### [c15.122](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.122) For the roasting of iron thin leaves of the metal are to be smeared with the levigated powder of the salts including common salt, saltpetre and sulphate of magnesia, and heated in the fire of cow-dung cakes. The process is to be repeated sixteen times. The method is equally applicable to the other metals. The metals are no doubt converted hereby into their respective oxides, or oxychlorides as the case may be. Susruta thus describes a practical method, though crude and imperfect, for the preparation of metallic salts. The process has been given the general name, \*ayaskriti\*, which means action affecting the metals. The much reputed ‘potable gold’ in the shape of the the chloride of the metal was probably obtained in this manner. Two types of iron pyrites with the lustre of gold and silver have been described in the Susruta, denoting obviously those containing copper and those free from copper respectively. ### [c15.123](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.123) Compounds of arsenic such as white arsenic (\*phenasma bhasma\*) and orpiment were recognized as poisons ### [c15.124](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.124) There occur one or two references to mercury, though somewhat vague. It seems mercury was not well known in Susruta’s time. ### [c15.125](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.125) Like Charaka, Susruta has also described a large variety of liquors prepared from the juice of fruits like grapes and raisins, from date-palm juices, from rice-paste and barley, from sugarcane juices, treacle and honey, as well as from flowers and bark of trees ### [c15.126](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.126) 1. A. C. Kaviratna . \*Translation of the Charaka Samhita\*, Calcutta. ### [c15.127](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.127) 2. U. C. Dutta : \*Translation of the Susruta Samhita.\* ### [c15.128](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.128) 3. A. F. R. Hoernle . \*The Susruta Samhita\*, Calcutta, 1897. \*Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India\*, Oxford, 1907. ### [c15.129](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.129) 4. K. L. Vishagratna . \*The Susruta Samhita\* (English Translation), Calcutta, 1907-16. ### [c15.130](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.130) 5. H. R. Zimmer . \*Hindu Medicine\*, Baltimore, John Hopkins Press, 1948. ### [c15.131](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.131) ⁶ M. Winternitz . \*Geschichte der indischen Literatur\*, Vol. 3, 545, 1922. ### [c15.132](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.132) CHAPTER V ### [c15.133](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.133) Chemistry in the Bower Manuscript ### [c15.134](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.134) The Bower manuscript is possibly the oldest existing medical manuscript. It was discovered by the British Lieutenant, A. Bower, in 1890 in a Buddhist monument at Kutcha in the Chinese Turkestan. Palaeographic evidence indicates its origin in the second half of the fourth century A D The contents should, therefore, represent knowledge acquired some centuries earlier than is warranted by the palaeographic evidence about the date of the manuscript. It consists of a series of medical and pharmaceutical monographs (\*kalpa\*) and treatise (\*tantra\*) Many of the chapters may be regarded practically as revision of similar ones found in the Charaka But no reference to the Charaka is found anywhere in the Sanskrit text of the manuscript, though the Susruta is explicitly quoted. It thus helps us in determining the chronology of the Charaka and the Susruta. ### [c15.135](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.135) \*Yavakshara\* and \*sarjikakshara\* are the two alkalies mentioned in the manuscript. These obviously represent the two carbonates of potash and soda respectively ### [c15.136](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.136) As a remedy for hiccough the fumes of horn have been recommended. This is practically the same as "spirits of hartshorn" or ammonia ### [c15.137](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.137) Preparation of alkali (potash carbonate) by burning vegetable matter has been described for use in 'Ksharataila' recommended as a remedy for diseases of the ear. (Part II. fasc. 11, p. 131). ### [c15.138](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.138) Mention of sulphates of copper and iron boiled with the oil of beleric myrobalans has been made as a remedy for turning grey hair into black in a formula for hair-dye (Pt. II, fasc 11, p. 162). ### [c15.139](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.139) \*Srotaja anjana\*, riparian sulphides of antimony, red ochre, galena, realgar, calx of brass, etc. have also been mentioned for use in medicines (\*ibid\*, p. 131.). ### [c15.140](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.140) Recipes of several important preparations, described in the Bower manuscript, agree in all essentials, and sometimes word for word, with those of the Charaka and the Susruta of the existing recensions. ### [c15.141](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.141) ¹ A. F. R. Hoernle: \*Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India\*, Oxford, 1907.. \*The Bower Manuscript\*, \*Archæological Survey of India\*, \*Reports\*, Vol. 22, Calcutta, 1893-1912. \\* Through the courtesy of Dr. Atmaram, Director, Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute, Calcutta. ### Bibliography ### [c15.s1.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.1) CHAPTER VI ### [c15.s1.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.2) Chemistry in the Vagbhata. ### [c15.s1.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.3) The treatise of medicine, next in importance to the Charaka Samhita and the Susruta Samhita, in which we can find some chemical informations worthy of note, is Astangahridaya (\*lit.\* heart or the kernel of the eight limbs or divisions of medicine), due to Vagbhata. As a medical authority Vagbhata was held in high estimation throughout India next to Charaka and Susruta. Vagbhata was Buddhist by religion, as the opening salutation of his treatise, addressed to Buddha or some Buddhistic emblem, clearly reveals. He most probably flourished during the ninth century A.D. (c. 800-850 A.D.). ### [c15.s1.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.4) Some authors place Vagbhata in the seventh century A.D., but evidences recently gathered on the subject by D. C. Bhattacharyya definitely support the later date. ### [c15.s1.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.5) Vagbhata is regarded as unrivalled in the principles of medicine (\*sutra\*). But his treatise may, however, be represented as an epitome of the Charaka and the Susruta with some gleanings from the works of Bhela and Harita. He introduces certain modifications and additions to surgery described in the Susruta. Mineral and natural salts chiefly figure in the prescriptions along with vegetable drugs; mercury is incidentally mentioned, but in such a perfunctory manner as to exclude any assumption about the knowledge of its compounds. Some metallic preparations are, however, recommended in it, which would presuppose an advanced knowledge of chemical processes. ### [c15.s1.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.6) In a recipe for medicine recommended as an external application for sores the names of the following minerals are found to occur: sulphate of copper, red ochre, realgar, orpiment, sulphate of iron, etc. ### [c15.s1.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.7) Many preparations of gold, silver, copper, iron, tin and lead have been described. ### [c15.s1.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.8) In one case direction has been given to roast in a closed crucible (\*andhamusha\*) a mixture of 64 parts of stibium (\*srotonjana\*) and one part each of copper, iron, silver, and gold (\*Uttarasthanam\*, Ch, XIII, p. 20-21). ### [c15.s1.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.9) In another preparation there is a direction for roasting in a closed crucible a mixture of 30 parts of lead, 5 parts of sulphur, 2 parts of copper and orpiment each, 1 part of tin and 3 parts of stibium. (\*ibid\*, p. 31-32). ### [c15.s1.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.10) Vagbhata borrows his method of preparation of alkali almost word for word from the Susruta. The process of rendering mild alkali caustic by the addition of lime has been described in detail as in the Susruta. (\*Sutra\*, Chap. XXX). ### [c15.s1.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.11) The only instance in which the mention of mercury occurs is in a recipe given as follows: ### [c15.s1.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.12) Take equal parts of mercury and lead and make them up into a collyrium with their equal weight of stibium and camphor. (\*Uttarasthanam\*, Chap. XXX, p. 36). ### [c15.s1.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.13) | 1. A M. Kunte | : | \*The Astangahrıdaya Samhıta\*, Bombay, 1891. | | 2. J. Jolly | | \*Indısche Medızın\*, Strassburg, 1901. | | 3. A. F R Hoernle | | \*Studies in the Medicine of Ancient Indıa\*, Oxford, 1907. | | 4. M. Winternitz | · | \*Geschıchte der indıschen Lıteratur\*, Vol 3, 1922, 549. | | 5. D. C. Bhattacharyya | : | \*New Light on Vaıdyaka Lıterature\* - \*The Indıan Hıstorıcal Quarterly\* ; Vol. 23, 1947, 123. | | | | \*Date and Works of Vagbhata, the Physıcıan\*, \*Annals of the Bhandarkar Orıental Research Instıtute\*, Vol. 28, 1947, 112 | ### [c15.s1.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.14) CHAPTER VII ### [c15.s1.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.15) Chemistry in Practical Arts. ### [c15.s1.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.16) Glass and Pottery ### [c15.s1.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.17) In this chapter we proceed to deal with the knowledge of chemistry as involved in various practical arts developed by the ancient Indians during the Ayurvedic Period. These include making of glass and pottery, metallurgy and metal working, dyes, paints and colours, perfumes, cements, etc. ### [c15.s1.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.18) \*Glass.\* It has been stated before that Kautilya has made mention of glass (\*kacha\*) beads in connection with some ornamental work with gold (\*kshepana\*) The Indians of Kautilya's time were, therefore, acquainted with the process of glass-making. Glass (\*kacha\*) was differentiated from crystal (\*sphatika\*) as early as in the days of Susruta (Chap. 46). Pliny also referred to the glass of India as superior to all others (Pliny, 36, 66). He further states (37, 20) that "the people of India by colouring crystals have found a method of imitating various precious stones, beryls in particular". Even in certain literary and poetical works of early India, as also in the great epic, Mahabharata, mention of glass is known to occur at many places. In the drama Vasavadatta (6th century A.D ) mention has been made of glass coloured like the neck of peacock. That the art was of still earlier origin in ancient India has now been proved by the recent discovery of the site of an ancient glass factory, believed to be of about fifth century B.C., at Kopia on the bank of river Anoma near Khalilabad in the Basti district of terai region of the Uttar Pradesha. Excavations of the remains of a Buddhistic stupa near the village of Piprahwa in the same district, not far from Kopia, by Mr Peppe in 1897-98 led to the recovery of a steatite casket from the bed of this stupa. The casket was found to contain the relics of Buddha (bones and ashes) together with some small glass beads, pearls, gold and silver leaves, jewelleries, etc. The surface of the casket has an epigraph in Pali language written in Brahmi script. The glass beads found at Kopia bear a striking resemblance to those contained in the Piprahwa casket, in their texture, material, shape, size and execution. As the inscription on the casket indicates its origin sometime in the fifth century B.C., it might be reasonably assumed that the Kopia beads and those of the Piprahwa casket are the products of the same age and the same place. ### [c15.s1.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.19) M. M. Nagar, who visited the the locality at Kopia in 1949 found countless number of tiny glass beads and glass pieces of various shapes and sizes, scattered all over the place. Fragments of earthen crucibles with glass sticking to the inner side were collected by him. Lumps of glass in various stages of formation and of various colours were noticed. These give some idea of the process adopted for melting, refining and colouring the glass. A block of glass discovered by him was found to weigh about 120 lb. and to have a dimension of 18″ × 19″ × 12″. The block was found to contain some over-burnt brick-bats, used possibly for reinforcement (Figs. 15. \*a\*, \*b\*, \*c\*, \*d\*. and 16). ### [c15.s1.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.20) The most striking among the finds are the tiny glass beads perforated with extremely fine holes, difficultly visible to the naked eye. They are brilliantly coloured and highly polished. ### [c15.s1.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.21) Chemical analyses of some of the Kopia glasses were made by P. Roy of the Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute, Calcutta. The results are quoted in the Table IV. ### [c15.s1.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.22) The specific gravity of many of these pieces (perforated beads and bangles) was found by the same analyst to vary between 2.33 to 2.68. One characteristic feature of all these pieces is that they are soda-lime glasses containing a high percentage of alumina. ### [c15.s1.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.23) The use of glass bangles in India was possibly introduced sometime about the 8th-9th century A.D. by foreign tribes like the Huns and Gurjaras coming from Central Asia. Sir Aurel Fig 15 (\*a\* to \*d\*) and Fig 16—Through the courtesy of the Director, Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute ### [c15.s1.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.24) Fig. 15\*a\*. Glass pieces of different colours (Kopia). ### [c15.s1.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.25) Fig. 15\*c\*. Fine perforated coloured beads and glasses (Kopia). ### [c15.s1.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.26) Fig. 15\*b\*. Miscellaneous specimens of beads (Kopia). ### [c15.s1.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.27) Fig. 15\*d\*. Miscellaneous specimens of beads ( Kopia ). ### [c15.s1.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.28) Fig. 16. Refractory clay pieces ( Kopia ). ### [c15.s1.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.29) TABLE IV ### [c15.s1.30](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.30) (KOPIA GLASSES)\ ### [c15.s1.31](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.31) | Sample | Silica SiO₂ | Alumina Al₂O₃ | Ferric oxide Fe₂O₃ | Titania TiO₂ | Lime CaO | Magnesia MgO | Alaklies Nd₂O | Manganese oxide MnO | Total | | 1. | 62.24 | 8 48 | 7 20 | 0 51 | 3.13 | 1.55 | 16.70 | 0 20 | 100.01 | | 2. | 70.30 | 5 30 | 1 20 | traces | 2 38 | 1.20 | 19.51 | 0.08 | 99 97 | | 3. | 64.80 | 7.35 | 0.95 | 0 45 | 3 71 | 2.10 | 20 59 | 0.06 | 100 01 | | 4. | 67.18 | 7.00 | 1.50 | 0.40 | 3 10 | 1.60 | 19 15 | 0.07 | 100·0 | | 5. | 66.13 | 7 26 | 0 86 | 0.41 | 2.24 | 1.33 | 21.67 | 0.10 | 100.0 | | 6 | 63.30 | 7.09 | 2.50 | 1 01 | 3 64 | 1 85 | 20.50 | 0.03 | 99.92 | | 7. | 66.60 | 6.98 | 1 62 | trace | 2.40 | trace | 21 70 | 0 07 | 99.37 | | 8 | 60.72 | 10 84 | 0 20 | — | 8.85 | 1.12 | 18.30 | — | 100.03 | ### [c15.s1.32](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.32) Stein found some specimens of glass bangles, slightly tinted in various shades of pale green and straw colour, and often ornamented with applied rib-work or cutting. ### [c15.s1.33](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.33) Glass beads (0.2"-0.3" dia.) have also been found at Bangarh in the Dinajpore district of Bengal, which may be ascribed as dating from the Mauryan to the Kushan period (i.e. 3rd century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D.). Glass beads and bangles have also been found at Taxila (\*vide infra\*) ### [c15.s1.34](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.34) Coins and Terracotta at Kopia ### [c15.s1.35](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.35) A large number of coins and terracotta have also been found at Kopia. The coins were mostly inscribed and they range in date from the third century B C. to the third century A D., representing the Punch-marked, Panchal, Ayodhya, Kosam and Kushan series. The terracottas too belong to the same age. They are mostly modelled, but few were found to be moulded. They are statuettes of human figures ### [c15.s1.36](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.36) Pottery ### [c15.s1.37](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.37) A number of sites in Northern and North-Central India have produced potteries which belong to the period ranging from the 5th to the 1st century B.C. The wares are of a distinctly highly polished type. Their quality seems to suggest a common cultural origin, and a limited duration. The body consists of a finely levigated clay, usually grey but sometimes reddish in sections This is covered with a brilliantly burnished slip having the quality of a glaze, ranging in colour from jet-black to grey, metallic steel-blue, occasionally varied with reddish brown patches. The wares are readily distinguishable by their brilliance from other polished or graphite-black wares which occur also in South India. The usual forms of the wares are dish and bowls. They have been found in relatively large numbers at 18 different sites, e g. Ahichchhatra, Mathura, Kausambi, Bhita, Sarnath, Rajghat, Jhusi, Masaon, Astranjikheda in the Uttara Pradesha; Patna, Giriak, Rajgir, Buxar in Bihar; Sanchi in Bhopal; Taxila in the Punjab; Bairat in This image is completely blank; there is no text or printed content to transcribe. ### [c15.s1.39](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.39) Fig 17. (\*Ancient India\*, 1946). ### [c15.s1.40](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.40) the Jaipur State; Kasrawadh in the Indore State; and at Bangrah in the Dinajpore district of Bengal. These sites are shown in the map (Fig. 17). ### [c15.s1.41](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.41) M. Sanaullah, the archæological chemist gives an account of their composition and of the process involved in their making on the basis of his analysis. The black colour is attributed by him to the presence of ferrous oxide (about 13 per cent). The original slip was evidently a highly ferruginous body consisting possibly of a finely levigated mixture of clay and red ochre. This was ground in water and applied to the surface of the vessel before firing. The black colour was developed by the action of reducing gases formed in the kiln. The polishing might have been done before or after the firing. The coating is not a siliceous glaze ### [c15.s1.42](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.42) The black polished film has been analysed with the following results: SiO₂, 46.55; FeO, 25.20; Al₂O₃, 15.53; CaO, 4.74; MgO, 3.43; alkalies not determined; H₂O (110°C), 3.45 per cent. (Sanaullah). ### [c15.s1.43](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.43) The black colour is evidently due to the formation of ferrous silicate. There is no evidence that it is due to carbon as has been suggested by some. ### [c15.s1.44](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.44) According to Sanaullah the presence of lime and magnesia increased the fusibility of the silicate layer of the surface, rendering the latter highly polished and hard. That carbon particles are also deposited in the pores of the wares during burning in a smoky atmosphere, when some tarry matter is condensed on the surface, has been confirmed by him. ### [c15.s1.45](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.45) Excavations at Sanchi, Taxila and other places have revealed further informations regarding the character of potteries in India during this period (Mauryan period). ### [c15.s1.46](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.46) The polished stone surfaces of many of the Sanchi sculptures are reddened with a translucent stain, which has the advantage of not obscuring the texture of the stone or the delicate details of the carving. At a later date, gateways and railings were covered with a coat of creamy lime followed by a thin red wash, which gave the stone a dull dead appearance. Paintings on walls have been found to be made by mixing red ochre with lime-wash to give red or \*geruka\* (brownish yellow) colour. Red lead or minium has also been found as an ingredient for the application of red paint. ### [c15.s1.47](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.47) At Taxila many pottery specimens of the early age have recently been unearthed. They furnish some ideas about the types of pottery prevalent during the Saka-Parthian and Kushan period (Fig. 18). The findings here consist of a white paste, glass beads and terracotta objects. Majority of the glass beads are of opaque glass and have colours ranging from dark yellow to orange and copper-red. They are disc-like, cylindrical or circular in shape. Some of the beads are also translucent and are of different colours like white, green, blue, purple, white iridescent, etc. Glass bangles, green or blue in colour, generally opaque and rarely transparent, have also been found. Some of these show a chalky coating from the devitrefication of the glass due to atmosphere and subsoil conditions. ### [c15.s1.48](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.48) The earliest specimen of true glass in India according to Marshall was found at Taxila in the Bhir mound (circa 5th century B.C.). A few specimens of blown wares in the form of flasks of sea-green or jade-green colour have been found at the Sirkap site belonging to the late Saka-Parthian age (Ist century A.D.). It is, however, believed that they are mostly imported from the West, being typical of late Hellenistic and Roman flasks of blown glass (Fig. 18\*a\*) ### [c15.s1.49](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.49) The pottery at Taxila (of circa 150-200 A.D.) was highly developed and sophisticated as can be judged from the quality and finish of the wares. They are characterised by the frequent employment of utilitarian devices, such as the pinched lips, handles, spouts, etc. There appears to be a predilection for flat and stable bases. With the exception of large storage jars the entire range of the pottery appears to be wheel-turned and made of well-levigated clay of fine or medium grain. The pots were fired in oxidizing conditions and burnt from dull red or greyish red to pink or light red in colour. ### [c15.s1.50](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.50) Fig. 18. Potteries from Taxila (\*Ancient India\*, 1946). ### [c15.s1.51](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.51) Fig. 18a. Glass vessels from Taxila (Marshall, \*Taxila\*, Vol. III, 1951). ### [c15.s1.52](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.52) A large majority of types was treated with a red ochreous slip varying in colour from pink through light red to dark red in shade. Decorated pottery formed a small percentage. The decoration consisted of painted, stamped, and neat impressed patterns. The painted decoration is normally in black on a red-slipped ground. The black colouring agent is believed to be magnetite or black oxide of iron, applied in a finely divided state with a brush before firing. The painted designs comprise triangles, loops, festoons, wavy lines, conventional flowers, cocks or peacocks, etc. ### [c15.s1.54](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.54) \[Figure: Fig. 18b, Potteries from Taxila (Marshall, \*Taxila\* Vol. III, 1951 ; Plate 125)\] ### [c15.s1.55](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15.s1.55) Special reference may be made here to three specimens of vessels, which were probably used for condensing purposes. These were found in the excavation at the Sirkap site, belonging probably to the late Saka-Parthian periods. They are made of coarse, red, sandy clay with lime and broken bricks. This seems to suggest that the process of distillation and condensation was known to the ancient Indians as early as the beginning of the first century A.D. (\*cf.\* Fig 18\*b\* ). _First 194 of 315 passages. [Read on](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15)_ --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c15) · Pramāṇa