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History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c37.s1: Gunpowder, Saltpetre, The Mineral Acids, Alum, Etc.

History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c37.s1

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English

Gunpowder, Saltpetre, The Mineral Acids, Alum, Etc.

c37.s1.1

That the knowledge of the art of manufacturing gunpowder was known to Indians in the 16th century A.D., seems to be supported by the several recipes given in the Sukraniti or the 'Elements of Polity' of Sukracharya. The translation of relevant verses is given below:

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"Take five palas of saltpetre, one pala of sulphur and one pala of charcoal, prepared from the wood of *Calotropis gigantea*

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In a publication on *The History of Fireworks in India* (between 1400-1900 A.D.) Gode has quoted formulae for the manufacture of specific fireworks from a Sanskrit work called the Kautukachintamani by Gajapati Prataparudradeva of Orissa, a royal author, who flourished in 1497-1539 A.D. From the manuscript of this work, as was available in the Government Manuscripts Library at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute at Poona, Gode has noted down the following materials used in the manufacture of fireworks, as found in the Sanskrit verses

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Sulphur (*gandhaka*), saltpetre (*yavakshara*), charcoal (*angara*), steel and iron powder (*tikshna loha churna* and *loha churna*), copper carbonate (*jangala*), yellow orpiment (*talaham* or *harital*), ochre (*gairika*), wood of 'khadire' tree (*khadiram daru*), hollow bamboo piece (*nalaka*), wick (*bartika*), five salts (*pancha kshara*), lodestone (*akhupashan*), pulp of castor seeds (*aranda majja*), mercury (*sutam*), rice paste (*annapista*), tin or lead (*naga*), charcoal from the 'arka' wood (*arkangara*), cow's urine (*gomutra*), cinnabar (*vermilion*).

c37.s1.6

It may be assumed as suggested by Gode (loc. cit) that some of the recipes for fireworks in India might have been brought from China and then modified by the substitution of Indian ingredients for the Chinese materials. For, fireworks, fire-arms, and military pyrotechnics were developed in China much earlier than in any other country. The Chinese had real fire-arms in the 13th century A.D., and they achieved considerable skill in manufacturing fireworks Preparation of explosive powder, containing sulphur, charcoal, saltpetre, paper, oil, etc., for military purpose, was known to them as early as 1000 A. D ¹

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¹ * L Davis and J R Ware, *Early Chinese Military Pyrotechnics*. *Journal of Chemical Education*, 24, 1947 522
* See Gode's paper on Akasabhairava Kalpa, *Karnatak Historical Review*, 1939 [^cont]

c37.s1.8

A description of fireworks and guns also occurs in another Sanskrit work, called Akasabhairava Kalpa, found in the form of a manuscript in the Tanjore Manuscript Library. (*cf* Gode, loc. cit.)cont This treatise, according to Gode, obviously belongs to a period later than 1400 A.D

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Gode (loc. cit) has further referred to the description of a display of fireworks in a marriage procession in a Marathi poem Rukmini Svayamvara, composed in 1570 A D. by the saint Ekanatha. Varieties of rockets and other fireworks are described in the poem.

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From the description given of fireworks in India by Verthema and Barbosa in their *Travels* (1502-1518 A D ), Gode concludes that fireworks were manufactured in India on a large scale at a time near about 1500 A.D. for use during marriage ceremonies and other festive occasions

c37.s1.11

Among the varieties of fireworks, still in use in India mention may be made of the cracker in different forms, known as *gola, patka, vengagvedi, koroo, adirvedi*, etc. Chinese fire-mixture, used in India and burnt in earthenware pots, is known as *tubri*. Other fireworks used in India are *anar, phuljhuri, burusu, chandrajyoti* or *mehtab* Rockets are known as *hawai* or *abusavanam* and called *bana* in the Sanskrit works.

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Saltpetre

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*Sauvarchala* stands for saltpetre in Rasarnava and Sukraniti. It occurs extensively in Bengal and in upper India as an efflorescence on the soil.

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Saltpetre has been in use in India from a very early time as the basis of rocket and other fireworks. In the Dasakumaracharita by Dandi (circa 6th century A.D.) mention is made of *yogavartika* (magic wick) and *yogachurna* (magic powder), of which saltpetre was probably the basis. The earliest account of the manufacture of saltpetre on a commercial scale in India, that has come to our notice, occurs in a work entitled, *The Travels of John Albert de Mandelso from Persia into the East Indies*, London, 1669. It describes the process as follows :

c37.s1.15

"Most of the saltpetre, which is sold in Guzuratta, comes from Ajmer, sixty leagues from Agra, and they get it out of land that hath lain long fallow. The blackest and fattest ground yields most of it, though other lands afford some, and it is made thus : they make certain trenches which they fill with their saltpetrous earth, and let into them small rivulets, as much as will serve for its soaking, which may be the more effectually done, they make use of their feet, treading it till it becomes a brooth (broth). When the water has drawn out all the saltpetre which was in the earth, they take the clearest part of it, and dispose it into another trench, where it grows thick, and then they boil it like salt, continually scumming it, and then they put into earthen pots, wherein the remainder of the dregs goes to the bottom ; and when the water begins to thicken, they take it out of these pots, to set it adrying in the sun, where it grows hard, and is reduced into that form wherein it is brought into Europe."
@H pp. 66-67.

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Mineral Acids

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The distillation of alum is referred to in Rasarnava, and of green vitriol in Rasaratnasamuchchaya. We have, however, no evidence that the acid thus derived was ever used as a solvent. At the same time, it might be pointed out that Rasarnava and similar other works lay stress upon *vida*, in which aqua regia may be said to be potentially present, and which is fitly described as capable of *killing* all the metals.

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The preparation of mineral acids is incidentally described in several exclusively medical works, composed probably in the 16th and the 17th centuries; e.g. in Rasakaumudi by Madhava, Rasaratnapradipa and Bhaishajyaratnavali by Govindadasa, etc ...... In the last work under the heading of *mahadravakarasa*, directions are given for distilling a mixture of, among other things, alum, green vitriol, sal-ammoniac, saltpetre and borax in a glass retort In this way a dilute solution of nitro-muriatic acid is obtained, which is prescribed in the derangement of liver and spleen. There is a similar recipe in which, in addition to the above ingredients, rock-salt and sea-salt are used, thus yielding what is called *samkhadravaka* (lit. solvent for conch-shell).

c37.s1.19

The term *dravaka* (solvent) seems to have been expressly coined to do duty for the mineral acids. We have seen all along that in the older works *dravaka* was used invariably in the sense of solvent or flux, but never in the sense of a mineral acid, the knowledge of which seems to have spread both in the east and the west almost simultaneously. The regular application of the mineral acids to technical operations dates from the time of Emperor Akbar or perhaps a little earlier Thus in the *Ayeen Akbari* under the "Method of Refining Silver" mention is made of the use of *rası* (aqua fortis). It is not easy to make out how much of the processes of the assay of gold and silver, as described in the *Ayeen*, is of earlier origin

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Alum and Green Vitriol

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Alum, with green vitriol, is distinctly referred to in the Susruta under the names of *saurashtraja* (lit. begot of Saurashtra—Surat) and *kasisa* respectively From the ancient times the earth of Surat has been known to yield this mineral (alum). The following synonyms of alum, *kamkshi*, *tuvari* and *saurashtraja*, are found in Amarkosha (600 A.D.) *Rasaratnasamuchchaya* also gives the same synonyms.

c37.s1.22

As we find from Ball's *Economic Geology of India*, the old indigenous process for the manufacture of alum survived even to the end of the 19th century A.D.. "Alum is principally used as a mordant in dyeing, but as a drug its employment is extensive in India. In two localities in Rajputana alum shales occur in quantities, from which alum was prepared. A small quantity was manufactured from slates obtained in the district of Sahabad in Bihar. Copperas or iron sulphate also occurs in the same region."

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Fig. 39. Alum and sulphate of copper works at Khetri, Rajasthan (Ball, *Economic Geology of India*).

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In connection with the copper mines at Rajputana, Khetri and Singhana, considerable quantities of blue vitriol, copperas and alum were used to be manufactured till the end of the 19th century. It is stated that in 1864 A.D. there were twenty of these factories at Khetri and about double the number at Singhana. "The process of manufacture consisted in the lixiviation of the broken shales from the mine with water in a series of earthen *gharas* (vessels), arranged on ledges prepared for the purpose on the heaps of refuse. The shales were mixed with the crusts derived from the previous lixiviation (Fig. 39). Each charge of shale was subjected to the action of three changes of water; and the water itself was changed from one *ghara* to another, till it had taken up sulphates from seven different steepings. It was then of a thick dirty-bluish colour and taken to the boiling house, where it was boiled in earthen *gharas*; when sufficiently concentrated, it was left to cool; and thin sticks being introduced, the blue vitriol crystallized on them. The mother liquor was then poured off and again boiled, and on the addition of saltpetre, the alum crystallized at the bottom of the vessel. The residual sulphates still in solution were allowed to crystallize out by exposing the mixture to the sun."

c37.s1.25

The manufacture of alum in Cutch from a pyritous dark-grey or black shale in large quantities had also been in vogue for a long time. It is stated that before 1818 the exports of alum from this source amounted in some years to several thousand tons. These mainly went to Guzerat and Bombay to be employed in dyeing. The process has been described as follows:

c37.s1.26

"The shale is excavated from pits and is exposed for four months, a slow combustion taking place owing to the decomposition of the pyrites. It is then spread in squares resembling salt pans and sprinkled with water. After about twelve days it consolidates into efflorescing mamillated crystalline plates or crusts, called *phūlhāri-kā-bīj* or seed of alum. These crusts are boiled in large iron vessels (luted inside with lime), together with saltpetre (or other potash salt), in the proportion of 15 of alum seed to 6 of the latter; when it has settled, the liquor is placed in small earthen vessels, somewhat the shape of flower-pots, and crystallisation takes place in three days. The crystals are again boiled one or more times to concentrate the solution, which is finally ladled into large thin bladder-shaped earthen *muthas* or *gharras* with small mouth; these are sunk into the ground to prevent their breaking, and in five days the alum is found crystallised in masses. The vessels are then broken, and the alum is stored.

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"Alum is also manufactured from the water of a hot spring north of Mhurr in Cutch. The impure saltpetre, required for making alum, is obtained by lixiviation of village refuse."—Ball's *Economic Geology of India*, pp. 431-33.

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