History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c39.s1: The Physicochemical Theories Of The Ancient Hindus

History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c39.s1

Language: English

The Physicochemical Theories Of The Ancient Hindus

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[ Abridged from Seal's paper in P. C Ray's History of *Hindu Chemistry*, Vol II ]

I propose in this section to give a synoptic view of the physical and chemical theories of the ancient Hindus. A chronological survey, even if the materials for it were available, would be here of little account. The origins of Hindu natural philosophy in the speculations of the Brahmanas and the Upanishads, or in the mythology of the Puranas, however interesting from the standpoint of *Kultur-geschichte*, do not come within the scope of the present exposition, which relates to the result of systematic thought as directed to the phenomena and processes of Nature. I have, therefore, confined to an account of natural philosophy as expounded in the principal systems of Hindu thought. The Samkhya-Patanjala system accounts for the Universe on principles of cosmic evolution, the Vaiseshika-Nyaya lays down the methodology of science, and elaborates the concepts of mechanics, physics and chemistry The Vedanta, the Purva-Mimamsa, and, in a less degree, the Bauddha, the Jaina, and the Charvaka systems make incidental contributions on points of special interest; but their main value in this regard is critical and negative The principal authorities followed in this account,—the Vyasa Bhashya on Patanjali's Sutras, the Samhita of Charaka, the Bhashya of Prasastapada, the Varttika of Uddyotakara, and the Vrihat Samhita of Varahamihira,—all centre round the Hindu Renaissance, the beginnings of the anti-Buddhist reaction, in the fourth, fifth and the sixth centuries of the Christian era Whenever I have made use of later authors, e g. Kumarila, Sankara, Sridhara, Vachaspati, Udayana, Bhaskara, Jayanta, Varvara, Raghunatha, Vijnanabhikshu, etc., I have taken care to see (except where the opposite is expressly mentioned) that no idea is surreptitiously introduced, which is not explicitly contained in the earlier authors.

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The Samkhya-Patanjala System

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This system possesses an unique interest in the history of thought as embodying the earliest clear and comprehensive account of the process of cosmic evolution, viewed not as a mere metaphysical speculation, but as a scientific principle, based on the conservation, the transformation, and the dissipation of energy.

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PRAKRITI—THE ULTIMATE GROUND

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The manifested world is traced in the Samkhya to an unmanifested ground, *Prakriti*, which is conceived as formless and undifferentiated, limitless and ubiquitous, indestructible and undecaying, ungrounded and uncontrolled, without beginning and without end. But the unity of *Prakriti* is mere abstraction; it is in reality an undifferentiated manifold, and indeterminate infinite continuum of infinitesimal Reals These Reals, termed *gunas*, may by another abstraction be classed under three heads: (1) *sattva*, the Essence, which manifests itself in a phenomenon, and which is characterised by this tendency to manifestation, in otherwords, which serves as the medium for the reflection of Intelligence; (2) *rajas*, Energy, that which is efficient in a phenomenon, and is characterised by a tendency to do work, or overcome resistance; and (3) *tamas*, mass or inertia, which counteracts the tendency of *rajas* to do work, and of *sattva* to conscious manifestation.

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The ultimate factors of the universe, then, are· (1) Essence or Intelligence-stuff, (2) Energy, and (3) Matter, characterised by mass or inertia.

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These *gunas* are conceived to be Reals, substantive entities,—not, however, as self-subsistent or independent entities (*pradhan*),—but as interdependent moments in every Real or substantive Existence.

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Even Energy is substantive in this sense. The infinitesimals of Energy do not possess inertia or gravity, and are not therefore material, but they possess quantum and extensity (*pariman-parichchhinnattva*).

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The very nature of Energy is to do work, to overcome resistance, to produce motion. All Energy is, therefore, ultimately kinetic. Even potential Energy (*anutbhutabritti sakti*, Energy whose action is unmanifested) is only the Energy of motion in imperceptible forms.

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THE ORIGINAL CONSTITUENTS AND THEIR INTERACTION

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Every phenomenon, it has been expressed, consists of a three-fold *arche*, intelligible Essence, Energy and Mass. In intimate union these enter into things as essential constitutive factors. The Essence of a thing (*sattva*) is that by which it manifests itself to intelligence, and nothing exists without such manifestation in the universe of consciousness But the Essence is only one of these moments. It does not possess mass or gravity, it neither offers resistance, nor does work. Next there is the element of *tamas*, mass, inertia, matter-stuff, which offers resistance to motion, as well as to conscious reflection.

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But the intelligence-stuff and matter-stuff cannot do any work, and are devoid of productive activity in themselves All work comes from *rajas*, the principle of Energy, which overcomes the resistance of matter, and supplies even Intelligence with the Energy which it requires for its own work of conscious regulation and adaptation

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The *gunas* are always uniting, separating, uniting again. Everything in the world results from their peculiar arrangement and combination Varying quantities of Essence, Energy and Mass, in varied groupings, act on one another, and through their mutual interaction and interdependence evolve from the indefinite or qualitatively indeterminate to the definite or qualitatively determinate. But though co-operating to produce the world of effects, these diverse moments with diverse tendencies never coalesce. In the phenomenal product whatever Energy there is, is due to the element of *rajas*, and *rajas* alone; all matter, resistance, stability is due to *tamas*, and all conscious manifestation to *sattva*

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The nature of the interaction is peculiar In order that there may be evolution with transformation of Energy, there must be a disturbance of equilibrium, a preponderance of either Energy or Mass-resistance or Essence over the other moments The particular *guna*, which happens to be predominant in any phenomenon, becomes manifest in that phenomenon, and the others become latent, though their presence is inferred by their effect. For example, in any material system at rest, the Mass is patent, the Energy latent, and the conscious manifestation sub-latent. In a moving body the *rajas*, Energy, is predominant (kinetic), while the Mass, or rather the Resistance it offers, is overcome. In the volitional consciousness accompanied with movement, the transformation of Energy (or work done by *rajas*) goes hand in hand with the predominance of the conscious manifestation, while the matter-stuff or Mass, though latent, is to be inferred from the resistance overcome.

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THE STARTING POINT

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The starting point in the cosmic history is a condition of equilibrium or equipoise consisting in a uniform diffusion of the Reals. The tendencies to conscious manifestation, as well as the powers of doing work, are exactly counterbalanced by the resistance of the inertia or Mass. The process of cosmic evolution (*parinam*) is under arrest.

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BEGINNING OF EVOLUTION

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The transcendental (non-mechanical) influence of the *Purusha* (the Absolute) puts an end to the arrest, and initiates the process of creation. Evolution begins with the disturbance of the original equilibrium. How this is mechanically brought about is not very clear. A modern expounder of the Samkhya supposes that the particles of the *sattva*, *rajas*, and *tamas* possess a natural affinity for other particles of their own class, and that when the transcendental influence of the *Purusha* ends the state of arrest, the affinity comes into play, breaks up the uniform diffusion, and leads to unequal aggregation, and therefore, to the relative preponderance of one or more of the three *gunas* over the others. Thus commences formative combination among the Reals, and consequent productive activity.

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FORMATION OF WHOLES OR SYSTEMS—COLLOCATION OF REALS

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Creative transformation accompanied with evolution of motion (*parispanda*) and work (*kriya*) done by Energy cannot take place without a peculiar collocation of the Reals (*gunas*) To form wholes or systems (*samudaya*) it is essential that one *guna* should for the moment be preponderant, and the others co-operant. And this cannot be without an unequal aggregation which overthrows the original equilibrium,—in other words, without unequal forces or stresses coming into play in different parts of the system.

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THE FORMULA OF EVOLUTION

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*Differentiation in Integration*—Evolution (*parinam*) in its formal aspect is defined as differentiation in the integrated. In other words, the process of Evolution consists in the development of the differentiated within the undifferentiated, of the determinate within the indeterminate, of the coherent within the incoherent. The evolutionary series is subject to a definite law which it cannot overstep. The order of succession is not from the whole to parts, nor from parts to the whole,—but ever from a relatively less differentiated, less determinate, less coherent whole to relatively more differentiated, more determinate, more coherent whole. On the Samkhya view, increasing differentiation proceeds *pari pasu* with increasing integration within the evolving whole, so that by this two-fold process what was an incoherent, indeterminate, homogeneous whole evolves into a coherent, determinate, heterogeneous whole.

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The different stages in the order of cosmic evolution are characterised as follows:—

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(1) The inconceivable, the unknowable, the formless, the indistinguishable *Prakriti*, or the Reals in a state of equilibrium.

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(2) The knowable cosmic matter of Experience, or stuff of consciousness,—comprising *Mahat*, the intelligible Essence of the cosmos, evolved by differentiation and integration within the formless, characterless, inconceivable *Prakriti*.

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(3) Individuated but still indeterminate stuff, bifurcating into two series—Subject-experience and Object-experience, evolved from the previous stage of *Mahat*. The Subject series representing individuated, indeterminate mind-stuff, empirical Ego (*Ahankara*), and the Object series representing individuated but indeterminate matter-stuff (subtile material potencies, *Tanmatra*).

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(4) In the Subject-experience series the empirical Ego evolves by further differentiation and integration into determinate sensory- and motor-stuff. In the Object-experience series a corresponding atomic matter-stuff is evolved in a determinate form from the subtile material potencies or *Tanmatra*.

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(5) Coherent and integrated matter-stuff evolved from the determinate atomic matter-stuff of the previous stage These constitute individual substances, characterised by generic and specific properties, which, however, are not rigidly fixed, but fluent, being subject to a three-fold change, and constantly evolving.

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(6) The cosmic series moves on in ascending stages of unstable equilibrium until the reverse course of equilibration and dissipation of Energy, constantly accompanying the evolution and transformation of Energy, completes the disintegration of the universe into its original unmanifested ground, the unknowable *Prakriti*.

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The order of Cosmic Evolution according to Samkhya is shown overleaf.

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THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (AND OF MASS)—THE TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY

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The *gunas* (Reals), though assuming an infinite diversity of forms and powers, can neither be created nor destroyed. The totality of the Mass (*tamas*) as well as of Energy (*rajas*) remains constant, if we take account both of the manifested and the unmanifested, the actual and the potential. But the individual products of the evolutionary process, the concrete phenomenal modes resulting from the combined action of the original Mass, Energy and Essence, are subject to addition and subtraction, growth and decay, which are only due to changes of collocation, and consequent changes of state from the potential to the actual, (in other words, from the future to the present, and from the present to the past, in a time series)—changes which are illusorily ascribed to the Reals themselves. The different collocations of Mass and Energy give birth to the diverse powers of things, the various forms of Energy which may be classed as like and unlike; indeed, the course of Evolution from the Reals conforms to a fixed law, not only as regards the order of succession, but also as regards the appearance (and mutual relations) of like and unlike Energies. And this transformation is constantly going on,—the course of Evolution is not arrested for a moment.

Linked texts (13)

Carakasaṃhitā — Agniveśa (Āyurveda) & Caraka, Sanskrit
Nyāyamañjarī — Jayanta Bhaṭṭa, Sanskrit
Bṛhatsaṃhitā — Varāhamihira, Sanskrit
Mīmāṃsāsūtra — Jaimini, Sanskrit
Padārthadharmasaṅgraha — Praśastapāda, Sanskrit
Brahmasūtra — Bādarāyaṇa, Sanskrit
Bārhaspatyasūtra — Bṛhaspati, Sanskrit
Yogasūtra — Patañjali (author of the Yogasūtra), Sanskrit
Śvetāmbara Āgama — Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit
Vaiśeṣikasūtra — Kaṇāda, Sanskrit
Brāhmaṇa — Sanskrit
Purāṇa — Sanskrit
Upaniṣad — Sanskrit