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History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c39.s5: Chemical Analysis And Synthesis—Elements And Compounds

History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c39.s5

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English

Chemical Analysis And Synthesis—Elements And Compounds

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What then is the equivalent in the Samkhya-Patanjala of the distinction between a chemical element and a chemical compound, or is there none? Did or did not this elaborate physical analysis and classification of things lead on to a classification based on chemical analysis and chemical synthesis? These are questions of singular interest, the answer to which will disclose some new points of view from which the ancient Hindu thinkers approached the problems of chemical physics and physical chemistry.

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Aggregates may, in regard to their structure, be divided into two classes, (1) those, of which the parts are in intimate union and fusion, being lost in the whole; and (2) mechanical aggregates, or collocations of distinct and independent parts

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A substance is an aggregate of the former kind, and may be divided into two classes; (1) the *bhutas* and their isomeric modifications, and (2) chemical compounds. Chemical compounds again may be subdivided into two classes, (1) those composed of atoms of the same *bhuta* class, *i.e.*, of different isomeric modifications of the same *bhuta*, and (2) those composed of atoms of different *bhuta* classes. In the first case, there is contact between isomeric atoms, in the second case, between heterogeneous or polymeric atoms The first contact leads to intimate union: the isomeric atoms by a peculiar liberation of Energy are attracted towards one another, and being riveted as it were, form the so-called material cause of the compound product. The second kind of contact (between unlike atoms of heterogeneous *bhutas*) begins with a liberation of Energy, which breaks up each of the *bhutas*, and, taking particles (or atoms) of one as nuclei or radicles, groups particles of the rest around these radicles in a comparatively free or unattached condition. In this case, one *bhuta*, that which serves to furnish the radicles, not necessarily that which is numerically or quantitatively predominant, gets the name of "material cause", and the others, which by their collocation cause the liberation of Energy, are called "efficient causes."

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But, besides these transformation of substances by 'isomeric' or 'heterogenic' (polymeric) process, ceaseless changes go on in the characters, the modality, and the states of substances—changes which are due to the unequal distribution of force (or of stress and strain,—pressure) among the *gunas*, which are in themselves constant.

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Now the question is—in these mixed substances does the fusion take place by *paramanus*, or by larger masses or lumps? Now a *paramanu* is defined to be the smallest portion of any substance. which exhibits the characteristic qualities of that substance,—in other words, it stands for the smallest homogeneous portion of any substance. It is not without parts and, therefore, not indivisible. It is subject to disintegration In a *bhuta* or its isomeric modification, the *paramanu*, the smallest homogeneous component particle, is unmixed, and, therefore, corresponds to the atom of modern chemistry. In a mixed substance, whether it is an isomeric or a polymeric compound, the qualities are due to the mixture, and, therefore, its *paramanu*, the smallest homogeneous particle possessing its characteristic qualities, must result from the mixture of the *paramanus* (in smaller or larger numbers as the case may be) of the component substances. The *paramanu* of a mixed substance, therefore, corresponds to what we now call molecule That the *paramanus* form molecules in forming substances, is acknowledged by the Samkhyas, as will appear from Gaudapada Even the Vaiseshikas, with their prejudice against 'polymeric' or 'heterogenic' combination, acknowledge that in 'polymeric' compounds, the different *bhuta* substances unite by their *paramanus* (or atoms), though they rigidly insist that in such cases only one atom should be regarded as the 'radicle' and the others as co-efficient causes

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It is only in the mediaeval Samkhya-Patanjala that under the influence of the Nyaya-Vaiseshka a radical difference was conceived to exist between the structure (constitution) of a molecule composed of 'isomeric' atoms, and that of one composed of heterogeneous atoms In the former case, an intimate union was believed to take place, in the latter only a grouping of comparatively free or loosely attached atoms round a radicle atom, with liberation of Energy and the setting up of unequal stress and strain. At the same time, it was, of course, admitted that this distinction does not apply to the forms of subtile matter (*tanmatra*) which could unite in intimate fusion, whether homogeneous or heterogeneous.

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According to the view of the earlier Samkhyas, atoms of different *bhutas* may chemically combine to form molecules of compound substances, as much as atoms of different modes of the same *bhuta*.

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Chemistry in the Medical Schools of Ancient India

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The prevailing schools of medicine and surgery founded by Charaka and Susruta (circa 1st century A.D.), which were based on the Samkhya teaching with a methodology derived from the Nyaya-Vaiseshika doctrine, had formulated an elaborate theory of inorganic and organic compounds, which equally admitted *iso-bhautic* and *hetero-bhautic* combinations (*cf.* Charaka, Sarirasthana, Chap I, Vimanasthana, Chap. VIII.—also Susruta, Sarirasthana, Chap. I) Like the Vedantists, Charaka holds that each of the gross *bhutas* (*mahabhutas*) is a peculiar ultra-chemical compound of five original subtile *bhutas*. In this sense, every substance is *penta-bhautic*; but for purposes of chemical analysis and synthesis, *i e*, considered with reference to the *mahabhutas*, all substances in their chemical constitution belong to one or other of the following classes. *mono bhautic*, *bi-bhautic*, *tri-bhautic*, *tetra-bhautic* and *penta-bhautic*. Compounds of different *bhutas*, again, may combine to form more complex substances, and these in their turn unite to give still higher compounds, and so on in progressive transformation, as is more specially the case with organic substances and products.

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PHYSICAL CHARACTER OF THE BHUTAS

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The prevailing physical characters of the different *bhutas* and their isomeric modes are enumerated as follows:

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| *Earth-substances:*— | heavy, rough, hard, inert, dense, opaque, exciting the sense of smell. |
| *Ap-substances:*— | liquid, viscous, cold, soft, slippery, fluid, exciting the sense of taste. |

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*Tejas-substances* :— hot, penetrative, subtile, light, dry, clear, rarefied, and luminous.

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*Vayu-substances* :— light, cold, dry, transparent, rarefied, impingent.

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*Akasa-substances* — imponderable (or light), rarefied, elastic, capable of sound (vibrations).

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(*Cf.* Charaka, Sarirasthana, Chap. 26; Susruta, Sutrasthana, Chap 41).

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Charaka points out that the primary qualities or specific physical characters of the five *bhutas* are tactile qualities, *i.e.*, sensible to touch; e.g., hardness (or roughness) for *kshitı* (earth), liquidity (or yielding to pressure) for *ap*, impelling or moving force (pressure) for *vayu*, heat for *tejas*, and vacuum (non-resistance, penetrability) for *akasa*.

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