[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Science, technology and education](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science) › [History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956) › c39 # History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c39: Appendix History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c39 - **Language:** English ## Contents - [c39.s1 The Physicochemical Theories Of The Ancient Hindus](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1) — 42 parts - [c39.s2 The Doctrine Of Causation, A Corollary From The Conservation And Transformation Of Energy—The Principle Of Collocation—The Storing Up And The Liberation Of Energy](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s2) — 17 parts - [c39.s3 The Dissipation Of Energy (And Of Mass)—Their Dissolution Into The Formless Prakriti](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3) — 52 parts - [c39.s4 Bhutas And Paramanus—Cosmogenesis And Its Successive Stages](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s4) — 15 parts - [c39.s5 Chemical Analysis And Synthesis—Elements And Compounds](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s5) — 17 parts - [c39.s6 The Mahabhutas—Mechanical Mixtures](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s6) — 30 parts ### Appendix ### The Physicochemical Theories Of The Ancient Hindus ### [c39.s1.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.1) ( By B. N. Seal ) ### [c39.s1.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.2) \[ Abridged from Seal's paper in P. C Ray's History of \*Hindu Chemistry\*, Vol II \] ### [c39.s1.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.3) I propose in this section to give a synoptic view of the physical and chemical theories of the ancient Hindus. A chronological survey, even if the materials for it were available, would be here of little account. The origins of Hindu natural philosophy in the speculations of the Brahmanas and the Upanishads, or in the mythology of the Puranas, however interesting from the standpoint of \*Kultur-geschichte\*, do not come within the scope of the present exposition, which relates to the result of systematic thought as directed to the phenomena and processes of Nature. I have, therefore, confined to an account of natural philosophy as expounded in the principal systems of Hindu thought. The Samkhya-Patanjala system accounts for the Universe on principles of cosmic evolution, the Vaiseshika-Nyaya lays down the methodology of science, and elaborates the concepts of mechanics, physics and chemistry The Vedanta, the Purva-Mimamsa, and, in a less degree, the Bauddha, the Jaina, and the Charvaka systems make incidental contributions on points of special interest; but their main value in this regard is critical and negative The principal authorities followed in this account,—the Vyasa Bhashya on Patanjali's Sutras, the Samhita of Charaka, the Bhashya of Prasastapada, the Varttika of Uddyotakara, and the Vrihat Samhita of Varahamihira,—all centre round the Hindu Renaissance, the beginnings of the anti-Buddhist reaction, in the fourth, fifth and the sixth centuries of the Christian era Whenever I have made use of later authors, e g. Kumarila, Sankara, Sridhara, Vachaspati, Udayana, Bhaskara, Jayanta, Varvara, Raghunatha, Vijnanabhikshu, etc., I have taken care to see (except where the opposite is expressly mentioned) that no idea is surreptitiously introduced, which is not explicitly contained in the earlier authors. ### [c39.s1.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.4) The Samkhya-Patanjala System ### [c39.s1.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.5) This system possesses an unique interest in the history of thought as embodying the earliest clear and comprehensive account of the process of cosmic evolution, viewed not as a mere metaphysical speculation, but as a scientific principle, based on the conservation, the transformation, and the dissipation of energy. ### [c39.s1.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.6) PRAKRITI—THE ULTIMATE GROUND ### [c39.s1.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.7) The manifested world is traced in the Samkhya to an unmanifested ground, \*Prakriti\*, which is conceived as formless and undifferentiated, limitless and ubiquitous, indestructible and undecaying, ungrounded and uncontrolled, without beginning and without end. But the unity of \*Prakriti\* is mere abstraction; it is in reality an undifferentiated manifold, and indeterminate infinite continuum of infinitesimal Reals These Reals, termed \*gunas\*, may by another abstraction be classed under three heads: (1) \*sattva\*, the Essence, which manifests itself in a phenomenon, and which is characterised by this tendency to manifestation, in otherwords, which serves as the medium for the reflection of Intelligence; (2) \*rajas\*, Energy, that which is efficient in a phenomenon, and is characterised by a tendency to do work, or overcome resistance; and (3) \*tamas\*, mass or inertia, which counteracts the tendency of \*rajas\* to do work, and of \*sattva\* to conscious manifestation. ### [c39.s1.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.8) The ultimate factors of the universe, then, are· (1) Essence or Intelligence-stuff, (2) Energy, and (3) Matter, characterised by mass or inertia. ### [c39.s1.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.9) These \*gunas\* are conceived to be Reals, substantive entities,—not, however, as self-subsistent or independent entities (\*pradhan\*),—but as interdependent moments in every Real or substantive Existence. ### [c39.s1.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.10) Even Energy is substantive in this sense. The infinitesimals of Energy do not possess inertia or gravity, and are not therefore material, but they possess quantum and extensity (\*pariman-parichchhinnattva\*). ### [c39.s1.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.11) The very nature of Energy is to do work, to overcome resistance, to produce motion. All Energy is, therefore, ultimately kinetic. Even potential Energy (\*anutbhutabritti sakti\*, Energy whose action is unmanifested) is only the Energy of motion in imperceptible forms. ### [c39.s1.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.12) THE ORIGINAL CONSTITUENTS AND THEIR INTERACTION ### [c39.s1.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.13) Every phenomenon, it has been expressed, consists of a three-fold \*arche\*, intelligible Essence, Energy and Mass. In intimate union these enter into things as essential constitutive factors. The Essence of a thing (\*sattva\*) is that by which it manifests itself to intelligence, and nothing exists without such manifestation in the universe of consciousness But the Essence is only one of these moments. It does not possess mass or gravity, it neither offers resistance, nor does work. Next there is the element of \*tamas\*, mass, inertia, matter-stuff, which offers resistance to motion, as well as to conscious reflection. ### [c39.s1.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.14) But the intelligence-stuff and matter-stuff cannot do any work, and are devoid of productive activity in themselves All work comes from \*rajas\*, the principle of Energy, which overcomes the resistance of matter, and supplies even Intelligence with the Energy which it requires for its own work of conscious regulation and adaptation ### [c39.s1.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.15) The \*gunas\* are always uniting, separating, uniting again. Everything in the world results from their peculiar arrangement and combination Varying quantities of Essence, Energy and Mass, in varied groupings, act on one another, and through their mutual interaction and interdependence evolve from the indefinite or qualitatively indeterminate to the definite or qualitatively determinate. But though co-operating to produce the world of effects, these diverse moments with diverse tendencies never coalesce. In the phenomenal product whatever Energy there is, is due to the element of \*rajas\*, and \*rajas\* alone; all matter, resistance, stability is due to \*tamas\*, and all conscious manifestation to \*sattva\* ### [c39.s1.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.16) The nature of the interaction is peculiar In order that there may be evolution with transformation of Energy, there must be a disturbance of equilibrium, a preponderance of either Energy or Mass-resistance or Essence over the other moments The particular \*guna\*, which happens to be predominant in any phenomenon, becomes manifest in that phenomenon, and the others become latent, though their presence is inferred by their effect. For example, in any material system at rest, the Mass is patent, the Energy latent, and the conscious manifestation sub-latent. In a moving body the \*rajas\*, Energy, is predominant (kinetic), while the Mass, or rather the Resistance it offers, is overcome. In the volitional consciousness accompanied with movement, the transformation of Energy (or work done by \*rajas\*) goes hand in hand with the predominance of the conscious manifestation, while the matter-stuff or Mass, though latent, is to be inferred from the resistance overcome. ### [c39.s1.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.17) THE STARTING POINT ### [c39.s1.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.18) The starting point in the cosmic history is a condition of equilibrium or equipoise consisting in a uniform diffusion of the Reals. The tendencies to conscious manifestation, as well as the powers of doing work, are exactly counterbalanced by the resistance of the inertia or Mass. The process of cosmic evolution (\*parinam\*) is under arrest. ### [c39.s1.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.19) BEGINNING OF EVOLUTION ### [c39.s1.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.20) The transcendental (non-mechanical) influence of the \*Purusha\* (the Absolute) puts an end to the arrest, and initiates the process of creation. Evolution begins with the disturbance of the original equilibrium. How this is mechanically brought about is not very clear. A modern expounder of the Samkhya supposes that the particles of the \*sattva\*, \*rajas\*, and \*tamas\* possess a natural affinity for other particles of their own class, and that when the transcendental influence of the \*Purusha\* ends the state of arrest, the affinity comes into play, breaks up the uniform diffusion, and leads to unequal aggregation, and therefore, to the relative preponderance of one or more of the three \*gunas\* over the others. Thus commences formative combination among the Reals, and consequent productive activity. ### [c39.s1.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.21) FORMATION OF WHOLES OR SYSTEMS—COLLOCATION OF REALS ### [c39.s1.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.22) Creative transformation accompanied with evolution of motion (\*parispanda\*) and work (\*kriya\*) done by Energy cannot take place without a peculiar collocation of the Reals (\*gunas\*) To form wholes or systems (\*samudaya\*) it is essential that one \*guna\* should for the moment be preponderant, and the others co-operant. And this cannot be without an unequal aggregation which overthrows the original equilibrium,—in other words, without unequal forces or stresses coming into play in different parts of the system. ### [c39.s1.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.23) THE FORMULA OF EVOLUTION ### [c39.s1.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.24) \*Differentiation in Integration\*—Evolution (\*parinam\*) in its formal aspect is defined as differentiation in the integrated. In other words, the process of Evolution consists in the development of the differentiated within the undifferentiated, of the determinate within the indeterminate, of the coherent within the incoherent. The evolutionary series is subject to a definite law which it cannot overstep. The order of succession is not from the whole to parts, nor from parts to the whole,—but ever from a relatively less differentiated, less determinate, less coherent whole to relatively more differentiated, more determinate, more coherent whole. On the Samkhya view, increasing differentiation proceeds \*pari pasu\* with increasing integration within the evolving whole, so that by this two-fold process what was an incoherent, indeterminate, homogeneous whole evolves into a coherent, determinate, heterogeneous whole. ### [c39.s1.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.25) The different stages in the order of cosmic evolution are characterised as follows:— ### [c39.s1.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.26) (1) The inconceivable, the unknowable, the formless, the indistinguishable \*Prakriti\*, or the Reals in a state of equilibrium. ### [c39.s1.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.27) (2) The knowable cosmic matter of Experience, or stuff of consciousness,—comprising \*Mahat\*, the intelligible Essence of the cosmos, evolved by differentiation and integration within the formless, characterless, inconceivable \*Prakriti\*. ### [c39.s1.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.28) (3) Individuated but still indeterminate stuff, bifurcating into two series—Subject-experience and Object-experience, evolved from the previous stage of \*Mahat\*. The Subject series representing individuated, indeterminate mind-stuff, empirical Ego (\*Ahankara\*), and the Object series representing individuated but indeterminate matter-stuff (subtile material potencies, \*Tanmatra\*). ### [c39.s1.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.29) (4) In the Subject-experience series the empirical Ego evolves by further differentiation and integration into determinate sensory- and motor-stuff. In the Object-experience series a corresponding atomic matter-stuff is evolved in a determinate form from the subtile material potencies or \*Tanmatra\*. ### [c39.s1.30](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.30) (5) Coherent and integrated matter-stuff evolved from the determinate atomic matter-stuff of the previous stage These constitute individual substances, characterised by generic and specific properties, which, however, are not rigidly fixed, but fluent, being subject to a three-fold change, and constantly evolving. ### [c39.s1.31](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.31) (6) The cosmic series moves on in ascending stages of unstable equilibrium until the reverse course of equilibration and dissipation of Energy, constantly accompanying the evolution and transformation of Energy, completes the disintegration of the universe into its original unmanifested ground, the unknowable \*Prakriti\*. ### [c39.s1.32](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.32) The order of Cosmic Evolution according to Samkhya is shown overleaf. ### [c39.s1.33](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.33) THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (AND OF MASS)—THE TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY ### [c39.s1.34](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.34) The \*gunas\* (Reals), though assuming an infinite diversity of forms and powers, can neither be created nor destroyed. The totality of the Mass (\*tamas\*) as well as of Energy (\*rajas\*) remains constant, if we take account both of the manifested and the unmanifested, the actual and the potential. But the individual products of the evolutionary process, the concrete phenomenal modes resulting from the combined action of the original Mass, Energy and Essence, are subject to addition and subtraction, growth and decay, which are only due to changes of collocation, and consequent changes of state from the potential to the actual, (in other words, from the future to the present, and from the present to the past, in a time series)—changes which are illusorily ascribed to the Reals themselves. The different collocations of Mass and Energy give birth to the diverse powers of things, the various forms of Energy which may be classed as like and unlike; indeed, the course of Evolution from the Reals conforms to a fixed law, not only as regards the order of succession, but also as regards the appearance (and mutual relations) of like and unlike Energies. And this transformation is constantly going on,—the course of Evolution is not arrested for a moment. ### [c39.s1.35](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.35) The Order of Cosmic Evolution ### [c39.s1.36](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.36) \`\`\` Prakriti the unmanifested, unknowable ground ### [c39.s1.37](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.37) Mahat Cosmic matter of Experience ### [c39.s1.38](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.38) Ahankara ### [c39.s1.39](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.39) Rajasic Ahankara Tamasic Ahankara (Subject series) (Object series) ### [c39.s1.40](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.40) Asmita Tanmatra--Sukshma-Bhuta Individuated indeterminate Individuated indeterminate matter-stuff--subtle mind-stuff--empirical Ego material potencies ### [c39.s1.41](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.41) Indria and Manas Paramanu--Sthula-Bhuta Determinate mind-stuff-- Determinate matter-stuff--atomic and molecular sensory- and motor-stuff constituents of gross matter ### [c39.s1.42](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s1.42) Coherent and integrated matter-stuff Individual substances with generic and specific characters, subject to constant change or evolution : viz inorganic objects, vegetable and animal organisms \`\`\` ### The Doctrine Of Causation, A Corollary From The Conservation And Transformation Of Energy—The Principle Of Collocation—The Storing Up And The Liberation Of Energy ### [c39.s2.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s2.1) The Samkhya view of causation follows at once as a corollary from this doctrine of the conservation and transformation of Energy. As the total Energy remains the same, while the world is constantly evolving, cause and effect are only more or less evolved forms of the same ultimate Energy. The sum of effects exists in the sum of causes in a potential (or unevolved) form. The grouping or collocation alone changes, and this brings on the manifestation of the latent powers of the \*gunas\* but without creation of anything new. What is called the (material) cause, or sum of material causes, is only the power, which is efficient in the production, or rather the vehicle of the power. This power is the unmanifested (potential) form of the Energy set free in the effect. But the concomitant conditions are necessary to call forth the so-called material cause into activity. When the favourable combination or co-operation of concomitants is wanting, there is no manifestation of the effect The question is—what is the aid which the concomitant conditions render in the determination (and production) of the effect, existing in potency in the material cause ? First, there is the merely mechanical view as illustrated by some commonplace examples, e.g., the manifestation of the figure of the statue in the marble block by the causal efficiency of the sculptor's art, or of the oil in the sesamum by pressing, or of the grain of rice out of the paddy by the process of husking. In these cases the manifestation of an effect is only its passage from potentiality to actuality, a stadium in the process of evolution from possible (future) existence to actual (present) existence; and the concomitant condition or efficient cause, the sculptor's chiselling, the pressing, the husking, is a sort of mechanical or instrumental help to this passage or transition. ### [c39.s2.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s2.2) These mechanical examples of the Kapila-Samkhya have the merit of simplicity, but the Patanjali-Samkhya explains causation on the basis of the conservation and transformation of Energy, advancing it as the liberation of potential Energy, existing stored up in a \*guṇa\* collocation (the sum of material causes). The liberation follows on the action of the proximate efficient cause or concomitant condition. ### [c39.s2.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s2.3) The causal operation of concomitant conditions (efficient causes) lies only in this that they supply a physical stimulus, which liberates the potential Energy stored up in a given collocation Everything in the phenomenal world is but a special collocation of the ultimate Reals (Energy, Mass and Essence). The sum of (material) causes potentially contains the Energy manifested in the sum of effects ; and in the passage from potency to actualisation, the effectuating condition (the concomitant cause), when it is itself accomplished, is only a step in the evolutionary series, which adds a specific stimulus, and renders determinate that which was previously indeterminate. When the effectuating condition is added to the sum of material conditions in a given collocation, all that happens is that a stimulus is imparted, which removes the arrest, disturbs the relatively stable equilibrium, and brings on a liberation of Energy together with a fresh collocation ### [c39.s2.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s2.4) Describing the production of bodies (organic vehicles) for individual souls, out of matter of \*Prakṛti\*, under the influence of their merit and demerit, as concomitant conditions, Patañjali points out that non-material concomitants like merit and demerit do not supply any moving force of Energy to the sum of material conditions, but only remove the arrest (the state of relatively stable equilibrium) in a given collocation, even as the owner of a field removes the barrier in \*flooding\* his field from a reservoir of water. This description is intended to represent the superphysical influence of non-material concomitants (or causes) like volition, merit, demerit, etc., but the causal operation of a material concomitant condition is essentially the same ;—there is the same reservoir of stored-up Energy in a given collocation—the same condition of arrest or relatively stable equilibrium—the same liberation of the stored-up potential Energy which flows along the line of least resistance;—the only difference being that in the case of material concomitants the stimulus which removes the arrest is physical, instead of being transcendental as in the case of non-material causes like will, merit, demerit, etc ### [c39.s2.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s2.5) The Vyasa-bhashya helps us to a clear mental representation of the details of this process. As the owner of many fields can irrigate, from a field which is already flooded, others of the same or lower level, without forcing the water thereto with his hands, and merely by making an opening in the barrier or dyke, on which the waters rush in by their own force;—or further, as the same person cannot force these waters, or the earthy matters held in solution therein, into the roots of the rice plants, but only removes the obstructive grasses and weeds, on which the fluids of their own power enter the roots;—such is the action of an effectuating condition added to a sum of material causes or conditions. ### [c39.s2.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s2.6) CHAIN OF CAUSATION—FIXED ORDER ### [c39.s2.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s2.7) The order of Evolution with the transformation of the Energy follows a definite law. The unalterable chain of causes and effects in the phenomenal world illustrates this fixed order But though the cosmic order is one and fixed, it comprehends diverse series arising from different combinations of the original \*gunas\*, which constitute sub-orders or particular laws of cause and effect. ### [c39.s2.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s2.8) What we call the qualities of things are only modes of Energy acting in those collocations And these various energies are sometimes actual (kinetic), sometimes potential, rising to actuality, and sometimes sublatent, subsiding from actuality into sublatency. In fact, the original Energy is one and ubiquitous and everything, therefore, exists in everything else potentially, without prejudice to the generic and specific differences of things. Inorganic matter, vegetable organisms, and animal organisms are essentially and ultimately one so far as and Energy are concerned; but the varied forms of Energy and the generic and specific qualities (or properties) of things, which are but modes of Energy, follow a definite unalterable law in the order of their appearance and succession, under conditions of space, time, mode and causality, and hence all effects do not manifest themselves at once. ### [c39.s2.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s2.9) TIME, SPACE AND THE CAUSAL SERIES ### [c39.s2.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s2.10) A \*Tanmatra\* (infra-atomic particle of subtile matter) is conceived by our understanding to stand in three relations :— (1) position in space, (2) position in the time series and (3) position in the causal series. ### [c39.s2.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s2.11) These three relations are the work of the intuitive stage of knowledge as opposed to the conceptual. But this is not the pure relationless intuition of Reality which may be termed intellectual intuition, but the intuition that imposes its forms on the Real substrate, or, in other words, empirical intuition. ### [c39.s2.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s2.12) Infinite Time is a non-entity objectively considered, being only a construction of the Understanding based on the relation of antecedence and sequence in which the members of the phenomenal series are intuited to stand to one another. These phenomenal changes, as intuited by us in the empirical consciousness, fall into a series, which the Understanding conceives as order in Time. The Time-series, then, is a \*schema\* of the Understanding for representing the course of Evolution. The \*schema\* of the Understanding supervenes on the phenomenal world as order in time, and hence in the empirical consciousness the Time-series appears to have an objective reality, and to form a continuum. As there is an ultimate and irreducible unit of extensive quantity in the \*gunas\* or infinitesimal Reals of \*Prakriti\*, which are without constituent parts, so the moment may be conceived as the ultimate and irreducible unit of this time-continuum as represented in the empirical consciousness. A moment, therefore, cannot be thought of as containing any parts standing in the relation of antecedence and sequence. If change is represented by the Time-series, a moment as the unit of time may be supposed to represent the unit of change. Now all physical changes may be reduced to the motion of atoms in space ; we may therefore define the moment as representing the ultimate unit of such change—viz, the (instantaneous) transit of an atom (or rather a \*tanmatra\*) from one point in Space to the next succeeding point. Even an atom has constituent parts (the \*tanmatras\*), and hence an atom must take more than one moment to change its position. The motion of that which is absolutely simple and without parts from one point in Space to the next must be instantaneous, and conceived as the absolute unit of change (and, therefore, of time). If this is held to be an irreducible absolute unit, it will follow that what we represent as the time continuum is really discrete. Time is of one dimension. Two moments cannot co-exist. Neither does any series of moments exist in reality. Order in Time is nothing but the relation of antecedence and sequence, between the moment that is, and the moment that went just before. But only one moment, the present, exists. The future and the past have no meaning, apart from potential and sublatent phenomena. One kind of transformation, to which a thing is subject, is that it changes from the potential to the actual, and from the actual to the sublatent. This may be called the change of mark, as opposed to change of quality and the change due to duration or lapse of time. The present is the mark of actuality,—the future, the mark of potentiality,—and the past of sublatency,—in a phenomenon. Only one single moment is actual, and the whole Universe evolves in that one single moment. The rest is but potential or sublatent. ### [c39.s2.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s2.13) Vijnana-bhikshu points out that this does not amount to a denial of Time. It means that Time has no real (or objective) existence apart from the ‘moment’. But the latter is real, being identical with the unit of change in phenomena. But even this is real only for our empirical (relative) consciousness, which intuits the relation of antecedence and sequence into the evolving Reals (\*gunas\*), in the stage of ‘empirical intuition’. The ‘intellectual’ intuition, on the other hand, apprehends the Reals as they are, without the empirical imported relations of Space, Time and Causality. ### [c39.s2.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s2.14) SPACE AS EXTENSION AND SPACE AS POSITION ### [c39.s2.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s2.15) Space must be distinguished as \*desa\* (locus or rather extension) and \*dik\* (relative position). Space (\*dik\*), as the totality of position, or as an order of co-existent points, is wholly relative to the understanding, like order in time, being constructed on the basis of relations of position intuited by our empirical (or relative) consciousness. But there is this difference between the Space-order and Time-order.—there is no unit of Space as position (\*dik\*), though we may conceive a unit of Time, viz, the moment regarded as the unit of change in the phenomenal or causal series Spatial position (\*dik\*) results only from the different relations in which the all-pervasive \*akasa\* stands to the various finite (or bounded) objects On the other hand, Space as extension or locus of a finite body, \*desa\*, has an ultimate unit, being analysable into the infinitesimal extensive quantity inherent in the Reals (\*gunas\*) of \*Prakriti\* ### [c39.s2.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s2.16) THE CAUSAL SERIES ### [c39.s2.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s2.17) The relation of Cause and Effect has been already explained. It only remains to add that the category of causality is mediated through the schema of order in Time. The Empirical Intuition first superimposes relations of antecedence and sequence on changing phenomena (the evolving \*gunas\* or Reals), and the Understanding out of these relations creates order in Time. The Empirical Intuition then intuits the phenomenal series of transformations of Energy in this Time-order and, in so doing, imports the relation of cause and effect into the course of Nature. ### The Dissipation Of Energy (And Of Mass)—Their Dissolution Into The Formless Prakriti ### [c39.s3.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.1) Cosmic Evolution is a two-fold process, creative as well as destructive, dissimilative as well as assimilative, katabolic as well as anabolic. In one aspect, there is the aggregation (unequal aggregation) of Mass and Energy, with consequent transformation of Energy, resulting in the creation of inorganic as well as organic matter, and the genesis of worlds. The successive steps of this process may be described as (1) unequal aggregation with storing-up of Energy in a certain collocation, under a state of arrest (i.e., in a state of relatively stable equilibrium), (2) a stimulus removing the arrest, and disturbing the equilibrium, and (3) liberation of the Energy, moving on to a fresh collocation, fresh aggregation, arrest and equilibrium. The process of the world thus moves on from equilibrium to equilibrium, and the result of that process is the development of a coherent, determinate, heterogeneous whole in what is essentially an incoherent, indeterminate, homogeneous whole. ### [c39.s3.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.2) But there is a second aspect of this evolutionary process. Unequal aggregations are unstable, there is a constant tendency in things to go back to the original stable equilibrium, the state of uniform equal diffusion of Reals (\*cf.\* Entropy). This process is called the resolution of like to like, consisting in assimilation and dissipation, and being the exact opposite of the process of "differentiation in the integrated" which has evolved the Cosmos. The collocations of Mass, Energy and Essence are always breaking up, and the Energy as well as the Mass, however slowly, however imperceptibly, are being dissipated, i.e., dissolved into the original formless \*Prakriti\*, a state of permanent equilibrium and arrest, from which there is and can be no return, except under the transcendental influence of the Absolute at the commencement of a new creative cycle. Not that there is a destruction of Mass or Energy, but a dissipation or dissolution into a condition of equal uniform diffusion from which there is no return. This is not the phenomenon of kinetic Energy disappearing and becoming potential or sublatent, for in such cases there is restitution or reconversion by natural means. When this reverse current of assimilation (and dissipation) prevails over the current of dissimilation (and integration), the Universe will disintegrate more and more, until it disappears in the formless \*Prakriti\*, its unknowable source and ground. ### [c39.s3.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.3) THE EVOLUTION OF MATTER (TANMATRIC CREATION) ### [c39.s3.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.4) The ultimate constitution of Matter is a question of the profoundest interest in the Samkhya-Patanjala system Three stages clearly stand out in the genesis of matter.—(1) the original infinitesimal units of Mass or inertia, absolutely homogeneous and ubiquitous, on which Energy does work, when the original equilibrium comes to an end,—(\*bhutadi\*); (2) the infra-atomic unit potentials, charged with different kinds of Energy, which result from the action of Energy on the original units of Mass,—(\*tanmatra\*), and (3) the five different classes of atoms, the minutest divisions, of which gross matter is capable, but which are themselves complex \*tanmatric\* systems,—(\*sthula-bhuta paramanu\*) ### [c39.s3.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.5) The first stadium \*bhutadi\* is absolutely homogeneous and absolutely inert, being devoid of all physical and chemical characters except quantum or mass (\*parichchinnatva\*, \*pariman\*) and this admits neither of addition nor of subtraction, can neither be created nor destroyed The second stadium \*tanmatra\* represents subtile matter, vibratory, impingent, radiant, etc., instinct with potential energy These potentials arise from the unequal aggregations of the original mass-units in different proportions and collocations with an unequal distribution of the original Energy (\*rajas\*). The \*tanmatras\* possess something more than quantum of Mass and Energy. They possess physical characters, some of them penetrability, others, powers of impact or pressure, others, radiant heat, others again capability of viscous and cohesive attraction In intimate relation to these physical characters they also possess the potentials of the energies represented by sound, touch, colour, taste and smell, but being subtile matter they are devoid of the peculiar forms which these potentials assume in particles of gross matter like the atoms and their aggregates. In other words, the potentials lodged in subtile matter must undergo peculiar transformations by new groupings or collocations to be classed among sensory stimuli,—gross matter being supposed to be matter endowed with properties of the class of sensory stimuli, though in the minutest particles thereof the sensory stimuli may be infra-sensible. ### [c39.s3.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.6) The \*tanmatras\*, then, are infra-atomic particles charged with specific potential energies,—first, the potential of the sound stimulus is lodged in one class of particles, \*tanmatras\* which possess the physical energy of vibration and serve to form the radicle of the ether atom (\*akasa paramanu\*); then the potential of the tactile stimulus is lodged in another class of \*tanmatras\*, particles which possess the physical energy of impact or mechanical pressure in addition to that of vibration, and serve to form the radicle of the gas atom (\*vayu paramanu\*); next, the potential of the colour stimulus is lodged in a third class of \*tanmatras\*, particles which are charged with the energy of radiant heat and light in addition to those of impact and vibration, and serve to form the nucleus of the light-and-heat corpuscle (\*teja paramanu\*), then the potential of the taste stimulus is lodged in other \*tanmatras\*, particles which possess the energy of viscous attraction, in addition to those of heat, impact and vibration, and which afterwards develop into the atom of water (\*ap paramanu\*); and lastly, the potential of the smell stimulus is lodged in a further class of \*tanmatras\*, particles which are charged with the energy of cohesive attraction, heat, impact and vibration, and which serve to form the radicle of the earth-atom (\*kshiti paramanu\*). ### [c39.s3.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.7) Before explaining the genesis of atoms, it is necessary to say something about \*akasa\*, which is the link between the infra-atomic particles (\*tanmatras\*) and atoms (\*paramanus\*). ### [c39.s3.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.8) Akasa corresponds in some respects to the ether of the physicists, and in others to what may be called proto-atom (\*protyle\*) In one respect \*akasa\* is all pervasive and devoid of the property of impenetrability which characterises even the infra-atomic potential units (\*tanmatras\*) In another aspect, \*akasa\* is described as having originated out of the mass or \*inertia\* in \*Prakriti\* (\*bhutadi\*), when the latter became charged with the first potential vibration (the sound-potential). Vijnanabhikshu in the Yoga-Vartika boldly tackles the difficulty. \*Akasa\*, he explains, has two forms; original and derivative, non-atomic and atomic. The original \*akasa\* is the undifferentiated formless \*tamas\* (mass in \*Prakriti\*, matter rudiment—\*bhutadi\*) which is devoid of all potentials, and is merely the all-pervasive seat or vehicle of the ubiquitous original Energy (\*rajas\*). This \*akasa\* must not be confounded with vacuum, which is merely negative, though it must be conceived as all pervasive, occupying the same space as the various forms of gross matter, and, therefore, devoid of the property of impenetrability which characterises atomic matter But when the original equilibrium comes to an end, unequal aggregations form collocations in different groups and proportions of the three \*gunas\*. The transformation of Energy now begins,—working on a collocation of Mass (with Essence); it first gives rise to the sound-potential, and the atomic \*akasa\* (proto-atom, \*protyle\*) is but an integration of the original unit of mass charged with this vibration-potential This vibratory (or rather rotary) ether atom is integrated, or limited (\*parichchinna\*), and as such cannot occupy the same space with other (subsequently integrated) atoms But this proto-atomic integration of \*akasa\* is formed everywhere, and itself residing in the ubiquitous non-atomic \*akasa\* forms the universal medium in which air or gas atoms, light-and-heat-corpuscles, and other atoms move and float about. ### [c39.s3.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.9) THE GENESIS OF THE INFRA-ATOMIC UNIT POTENTIALS (\*TANMATRAS\*) AND OF THE ATOMS ### [c39.s3.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.10) The subject of the genesis and the structure of the \*tanmatras\* and the \*paramanus\* was a fascinating one to these ancient thinkers, and a wide divergence of views prevailed. I will give here several typical views:—those of the Vishnu Purana, Parasara, Patanjali and a certain School of Vedantists. ### [c39.s3.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.11) 1 A famous passage in the Vishnu Purana explains the genesis and the structure of the \*tanmatras\* and of the \*bhutas\* (\*paramanus\*) in the following manner:— ### [c39.s3.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.12) The first \*tanmatra\* originated from the rudiment-matter (\*bhutadi\*), the individuated but still indeterminate potential-less Mass in \*Prakriti\*, under the action of Energy by a process of disintegration and emanation in the menstruum, or surrounding medium of the unindividuated Cosmic Mass (\*mahat\*) ### [c39.s3.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.13) This first subtile matter, the first result of 'Mass-disintegration' and Energy-transformation, is charged with the sound-potential, the potential of vibration or oscillation. It is called the sound-potential (\*sabda-tanmatra\*). ### [c39.s3.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.14) This is typical of the genesis (and structure) of the \*tanmatras\* (kinds of subtile matter). In each of the remaining cases, an atomic Mass charged with actual specific energies disintegrates and emanates, and thus evolves a form of subtile matter (a kind of \*tanmatra\*) under the action of Energy, and always in the same menstruum or surrounding medium,—that of \*bhutadi\*, the super-subtile. Each kind of subtile matter becomes charged with a new potential in addition to the potentials already evolved. The genesis of an atom, \*bhuta-paramanu\* is a quite different process. Here the unit potential (\*tanmatra\*) receives an accretion of Mass, and by a sort of condensation and collocation evolves an atom (\*bhuta-paramanu\*). ### [c39.s3.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.15) The genesis and structure of the \*tanmatras\* and the \*bhuta-paramanus\* are worked out below:— ### [c39.s3.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.16) 1. The super-subtile individuated Mass (rudiment-matter—\*bhutadi\*), under the action of the original Energy (\*rajas\*), disintegrates and emanates in the menstruum or surrounding medium of \*mahat\*, cosmic super-subtile Mass, and evolves a form of subtile-matter (\*tanmatra\*), which becomes charged with the sound-potential (vibration-potential—\*parispanda\*), and is called the unit of sound-potential (\*sabda-tanmatra\*). ### [c39.s3.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.17) 2 This subtile matter, the Mass, charged with sound-potential, receives an accretion of Mass from the rudiment of matter (\*bhutadi\*) and by condensation and collocation evolves the \*akasa bhuta\*, the atomic \*akasa\*, the proto-atom charged with the specific energy of the sound stimulus (actual vibratory motion). ### [c39.s3.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.18) 3. This proto-atom, the atomic \*akasa\*, charged with its actual specific energy, again disintegrates and emanates, under the action of the original Energy and in the menstruum of the rudiment-matter (\*super-subtile Mass\*), and thus evolves another kind of subtile matter (\*tanmatra\*) which becomes charged with the touch-potential (the \*potential\* of impact or mechanical pressure), in addition to the sound-potential, and is called the unit of touch-potential (\*sparsha-tanmatra\*). ### [c39.s3.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.19) 4. Next, this subtile matter, the mass charged with touch- (and sound-) potential, \*i.e.\*, with the potentials of vibration and impact, receives an accretion of mass again from the rudiment-matter (\*bhutadi\*), and by condensation and collocation evolves the \*vayu bhuta\*, a kind of gaseous matter or air, of which the atoms are charged with the actual specific energy of the touch-stimulus, \*i.e.\*, with the actual energy of impact in addition to the actual energy of vibratory motion. ### [c39.s3.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.20) 5. Next, the atom of \*vayu\*, so charged with the actual specific energy of impact and vibration, again disintegrates and emanates, under the action of the original Energy and in the same menstruum or surrounding medium of the rudiment-matter (\*bhutadi\*), and thus evolves another kind of subtile matter (\*tanmatra\*), which becomes charged with the heat-potential (heat-and-light-potential), in addition to the impact-potential and the vibration-potential, and is called the unit of colour-potential (\*rupa-tanmatra\*). ### [c39.s3.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.21) 6. Now this subtile matter, this radiant matter, charged with light-and-heat-potential, and also with impact-and vibration-potential, receives an accretion of Mass again from the rudiment-matter (\*bhutādi\*), and by condensation and collocation evolves the \*tejas bhuta\*, the light-and-heat-corpuscle, which is charged with the specific energy of the colour-stimulus, i e., radiates actual heat and light in addition to manifesting the energy of impact and of vibration. ### [c39.s3.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.22) 7. Next, this atom or light-and-heat-corpuscle disintegrates, and emanates as before a form of subtile matter charged with the taste-potential (\*rasa-tanmatra\*), in addition to the three potentials already generated, and also with the physical potential of viscous attraction. ### [c39.s3.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.23) 8. This subtile matter charged with the taste-potential and with the potential of viscous attraction condenses and collocates as before into the water-atom, which manifests the actual specific energies of viscous attraction and the taste-stimulus. ### [c39.s3.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.24) 9. The viscous water-atom charged with the actual specific energy of the taste-stimulus disintegrates, and emanates as before a form of subtile matter charged with the smell-potential, in addition to the four potentials already generated, and also with the potential of cohesive attraction. ### [c39.s3.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.25) 10. This subtile matter charged with the smell-potential and with the potential of cohesive attraction condenses and collocates as before into the earth-atom, which manifests the actual specific energies of cohesive attraction and the smell-stimulus. ### [c39.s3.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.26) Vijnana-bhikshu in the Yoga-Vartika briefly summarises the Vishnu Purana process as follows.— ### [c39.s3.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.27) \*Bhutādi\* as radicle in conjunction with \*mahat\* produces the sound-potential, which as radicle in conjunction with \*bhutādi\* produces \*akasa\*, which as radicle in conjunction with \*bhutādi\* produces the touch-potential, which as radicle in conjunction with \*bhutādi\* produces \*vayu\*, which as radicle in conjunction with \*bhutādi\* produces the colour-potential, which as radicle in conjunction with \*bhutādi\* produces \*tejas\*, and so on. ### [c39.s3.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.28) 11. A famous passage in Parasara takes another view of the genesis and structure of the \*tanmatras\* and the \*bhuta-paramanus\*. ### [c39.s3.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.29) The \*tanmatras\* originate from one another in one linear series, and each \*bhuta\* originates in a separate line from its own \*tanmatra\*: ### [c39.s3.31](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.31) Thus an atom of \*akasa\* has the structure given below ### [c39.s3.33](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.33) An atom of \*vayu\* is constituted as follows ### [c39.s3.35](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.35) An atom of \*tejas\*, heat-and-light-corpuscle, has the following structure. ### [c39.s3.37](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.37) In the language of chemistry, an atom of \*vayu\* may be regarded as generated from the impact \*tanmatra\* as a radicle in the menstruum of vibration-\*tanmatra\*, with \*akasa\*-atoms as a catalytic agent. ### [c39.s3.38](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.38) A certain school of Vedantists gives, on the other hand, a slight variation of the above view. Their scheme may be represented as follows: ### [c39.s3.39](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.39) A \*bhuta\*-atom is evolved by integration (condensation and collocation) from the corresponding \*tanmatra\* (subtile matter) The \*tanmatras\* again evolve from one another in a lineal series as in Parasara's view described above. But the process of this generation is somewhat more complex. A \*tanmatra\* first disintegrates and emanates in a surrounding medium (a menstruum) of the \*tanmatra\* just preceding it in the order of genesis, and, with the help of its own \*sthula bhuta\* as a sort of catalyst, generates the \*tanmatra\*, next in order e g., the infra-atomic impact particles (\*sparsa-tanmatra\*) disintegrate or emanate in a surrounding atmosphere of the vibratory subtile matter (\*sabda-tanmatra\*), and then with the help of their own atomic integration \*vayu\* (gas) generate the \*tanmatra\* next in order, the subtile matter of radiant light-and-heat (\*tejas\*) ### [c39.s3.40](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.40) III. \*Patanjali's View. ### [c39.s3.41](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.41) (a) The order of genesis of various forms of subtile \*matter\* (\*potentials\*):— ### [c39.s3.42](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.42) (1) \*Bhutadi\*, the rudiment-matter, original mass, acted on by \*rajas\* (Energy), produces the sound-potential (vibration-potential) ### [c39.s3.43](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.43) (2) This subtile vibration-potential, as a radicle, with accretion of rudiment-matter (\*bhutadi\*), condensing and collocating, and acted on by \*rajas\*, generates the subtile touch-potential (impact-potential), which is impingent as well as vibratory (oscillating) ### [c39.s3.44](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.44) (3) This subtile impact-potential again, as a radicle, with accretion of rudiment-matter (\*bhutadi\*), condensing and collocating, and acted on by \*rajas\*, generates the subtile light-and-heat-potential, which radiates light and heat, in addition to being impingent and vibratory. ### [c39.s3.45](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.45) (4) Next, the light-and-heat-potential, as a radicle, with accretion of rudiment-matter (\*bhutadi\*), condensing and collocating as before, generates the subtile taste-potential, which is charged with the potential of taste-energy, and of viscous attraction, in addition to being vibratory, impingent and radiant. ### [c39.s3.46](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.46) (5) Lastly, the subtile taste-potential as a radicle, with accretion of rudiment-matter as before, condensing and collocating, generates the subtile smell-potential, which is charged with the potential of the smell-energy, and also of cohesive attraction, in addition to being vibratory, impingent and radiant. ### [c39.s3.47](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.47) (b) The order of genesis of the \*bhuta paramanus\* (forms of atomic matter),—the five classes of atoms, is given as follows:— ### [c39.s3.48](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.48) (1) The sound-potential, subtile matter, with accretion of rudiment-matter (\*bhutadi\*) generates the \*akasa\*-atom ### [c39.s3.49](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.49) (2) The touch-potentials combine with the vibratory particles (sound-potential) to generate the \*vayu\*-atom ### [c39.s3.50](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.50) (3) The light-and-heat-potentials combine with the touch-potentials and sound-potentials (i.e., with impact particles and vibratory particles) to produce the \*tejas\*-atom. ### [c39.s3.51](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.51) (4) The taste-potentials combine with light-and-heat-potentials, touch-potentials and sound-potentials (i.e., with radiant, impingent and vibratory particles) to generate the \*ap\*-atom. ### [c39.s3.52](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.52) (5) The smell-potentials combine with the preceding potentials (i e., with particles of taste-energy and with radiant, impingent and vibratory particles) to generate the \*kshiti\*-atom. ### [c39.s3.53](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.53) The \*akasa\*-atom possesses penetrability, the \*vayu\*-atom impact or mechanical pressure, the \*tejas\*-atom, radiant heat-and-light, the \*ap\*-atom, viscous attraction, and the \*kshiti\*-atom, cohesive attraction. ### [c39.s3.54](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.54) Vijnana-bhikshu, in one passage, gives the following scheme of the genesis of the \*bhutas\*:— ### [c39.s3.55](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.55) A radicle of sound-potential with rudiment-matter gives \*akasa\*-atom, a radicle of touch-potential with \*akasa\*-atom gives \*vayu\*-atom, a radicle of light-and-heat-potential with \*vayu\*-atom gives \*tejas\*-atom, a radicle of taste-potential with \*tejas\*-atom gives \*ap\*-atom, a radicle of smell-potential with \*ap\*-atom gives \*kshiti\*-atom. ### [c39.s3.56](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s3.56) On this view, an atom of \*akasa\* = Bh (Sb), of \*vayu\* = \[Bh (Sb)\] (Sp), of \*tejas\* = \[Bh (Sb)\] (Sp) (Rp); where Bh = \*Bhutadi\*, Sb = \*Sabda-tanmatra\*, Sp = \*Sparsa tanmatra\*, Rp = \*Rupa-tanmatra\*. ### Bhutas And Paramanus—Cosmogenesis And Its Successive Stages ### [c39.s4.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s4.1) The five \*bhutas\* stand for a classification of substances on the basis of their generic properties resulting, as the Samkhyas hold, from the structural type of their constituent atoms—a classification more physical than chemical, or properly speaking chemico-physical, unlike the purely chemical classification of the so-called elements of modern chemistry. A \*paramanu\*, again, is a type of atom corresponding to each \*bhuta\* class, and indeed one and the same kind of \*paramanu\* may comprehend atoms of different masses, if only these would agree in their structural type ### [c39.s4.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s4.2) \*Cosmogenesis\*—(a bird's-eye view) —Out of the all pervasive rudiment-matter (\*bhutadi\*) appeared \*akasa\* (ether), first as a \*tanmatra\* (subtile matter) charged with the potential energy of sound (vibration-potential), and then as an atomic integration of a \*mono-tanmatric\* structure (the \*akasa\*-atom), also ubiquitous and all-enveloping. In the next stage we find a new kind of \*tanmatras\*, systems of the infra-atomic vibratory particles, so arranged as to manifest a new form of energy, that of impact or mechanical pressure, and these tanmatras combining with the vibration-potentials (\*akasa tanmatra\*) produced a new kind of atom, the \*di-tanmatric vayu\* atom, which by aggregation formed a gaseous Envelope composed of impinging (driving) vibratory particles (\*vayu\*). Next appeared the third class of \*tanmatras\*, infra atomic systems of the impinging vibratory particles, which by their collocation developed a new form of Energy—the Energy of radiant heat-and-light. These \*tanmatras\*, combining with the potentials (\*tanmatras\*) of vibration and impact, produced a new kind of atom—the \*tri-tanmatric tejas\* atom, the light-and-heat-corpuscle, which by aggregation enveloped the gaseous world in huge flames In the next stage we have the fourth class of \*tanmatras\*, new and complex infra-atomic systems of the radiant impinging vibratory particles, which evolved the Energy of viscous attraction as well as the potential Energy concerned in the taste-stimulus. These \*tanmatras\*, combining with the three previous ones, gave rise to another class of atoms, the \*tetra-tanmatric ap\*-atom, and the flaming gases were thus precipitated into cosmic masses of viscous fluid matters (\*ap\*). Finally appeared the fifth class of \*tanmatras\*, infra-atomic systems of the viscous radiant impinging vibratory particles, which developed new forms of Energy—the Energy of cohesive attraction, as well as the potential Energy concerned in the stimulus of smell. These \*tanmatras\*, uniting with the other four kinds of infra-atomic subtile particles, formed another class of atoms, the \*penta-tanmatric kshiti\*-atom. Thus the viscous fluid matter were condensed and transformed into the earth-\*bhuta\*, comprising the majority of the so-called elements of chemistry. ### [c39.s4.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s4.3) \*Examples of the different Bhutas\*• ### [c39.s4.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s4.4) 1 \*Akasa\* :—This is ubiquitous. ### [c39.s4.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s4.5) 2 \*Vayu\*:—Various substances composed of \*di-tanmatric\* atoms,—kinds of \*vayu\*—must have been formed in the gaseous envelope in the second stage of cosmic evolution out of the proto-atoms of \*akasa\*. But they have either suffered a fresh transformation into substances of a more complex atomic structure, or have dissipitated into the \*mono-tanmatric akasa\*, out of which they took their rise. The one familiar example now surviving is atmospheric air. Water vapour is but water (\*ap\* ;) and smoke, fumes, etc. are but earth-particles in gaseous diffusion. ### [c39.s4.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s4.6) 3. \*Tejas\*:—Various classes of \*tejas\* corpuscles,—substances with \*tri-tanmatric\* atomic structure, i.e., two grades subtler than the ordinary elements of chemistry (which are of a \*penta-tanmatric\* structure),—are even now known. ### [c39.s4.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s4.7) First there is fire or the light-and-heat emitted by the burning log of wood or lamp. Now it is important to note that the flame of a burning log of wood or of an oil lamp is not pure \*tejas\*, a pure mass of light-and-heat-corpuscles. There is chemical union with earth-particles (particles of the hard \*penta-tanmatric\* substance) acted on by Energy; and then the \*tejas\* corpuscles, light-and-heat-particles which are latent (absorbed) therein, come forth as flame. Then there is the light of the sun and the stars, which are flaming masses of molten viscous matters or of molten earthy matters There is also the lightning, which liberates a kind of \*tejas\* latent in the aqueous particles and vapours, under the action of Energy, in the same way as an ordinary fire liberates the \*tejas\* latent in the wood or other fuel. Next, there are the stores of animal heat derived from the break-up of the nutritive material. Lastly there comes the peculiar form of the \*tejas\* Energy (radiant Energy), stored up in the metalliferous ores and igneous rocks, which have been formed in the subterranean heat. Here earthy matters are mixed up, but the radiant energy predominates in the composition of the metals. Aniruddha, a late Samkhya commentator, notes in reference to igneous bodies that the greater part of their mass is derived from the \*earth-bhuta\*, though the \*tejas\* particles determine the peculiar chemical combination, which produces them; and this must also be his view of the composition of the metals. ### [c39.s4.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.science.ray-1956.c39.s4.8) 4. \*Ap\* :—This viscous fluid of a \*tetra-tanmatric\* structure has but one pure example, viz, water, though the various organic acids, the juices of fruits and the saps of plants, are supposed to be transformations of watery radicles combined with different kinds of earthy accretions. _First 119 of 180 passages. 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