History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c40.s3: The Vedantic View
History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c40.s3
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The Vedantic View
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The Vedantists believe *Maya* to be the 'material cause' of the world. The power of *Maya* is the power to realise the unreal—to impart practical Reality, or mediate existence, to that which does not and cannot possess absolute Reality or self-existence. *Maya* is at once real and unreal, while the *Brahma* (Self) is absolute Reality, absolute Intelligence and absolute Bliss. The world evolves out of *Maya*, so that *Maya* in the Vedanta replaces the *Prakriti* of the Samkhya. But *Maya*, and by implication the world, originate out of *Brahma*, not by a process of evolution, but of *vivarta* (self-alienation). The self-alienation of the Absolute, acting through *Maya*, produces in the beginning *akasa*, one, infinite, ubiquitous, imponderable, inert and all pervasive. The world, thus begun, goes on evolving in increasing complexity. The other *sukshma bhutas*, classes of subtile matter, evolve from *akasa*, in an ascending linear order,—*akasa* giving off *vayu*, *vayu* giving off *tejas*, *tejas* giving off *ap*, and *ap* giving off *kshiti*. *Akasa*, one, infinite, all-pervasive, has the capacity of sound. *Vayu*, subtile gaseous matter, emanates from the universal *akasa*, and is instinct with the potential of mechanical energy (impact, pressure). *Tejas*, subtile radiant matter, emanates from *vayu*, and contains in potentia the energy of light and heat. *Ap*, subtile viscous matter, is the transformation of *tejas*, and is instinct with the energy that stimulates the nerve of taste; and lastly *kshiti* (Earth) subtile hard matter, which is the transformation of *ap*, possesses the latent energy of smell.
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But the subtile rudiments of matter must be compounded in various ways, to give rise to the gross consituent matter of the world. These forms of gross matter are called *mahabhutas*.
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There are five kinds of *mahabhutas* (gross matter corresponding to the five *sukshma bhutas*—subtile matter), and the process by which a *mahabhuta* is produced from the *sukshma bhutas* is called "panchikarana" (quintuplication). All the five *sukshma bhutas* are present as ingredients, though in different proportions, in each *mahabhuta*
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The *mahabhuta earth*, gross earth-matter, is composed of four parts of subtile earth-matter, and one part each of the other forms of subtile matter. The *mahabhuta vayu* is composed of four parts of subtile gaseous matter, and one part each of the other forms of subtile matter. And similarly with the other *mahabhutas*.
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Hence if ak, v, t, ap and e represent the five forms of subtile matter (*akasa*, *vayu*, *tejas*, *ap*, and *earth*), and Ak, V, T, Ap, and E stand for the corresponding *mahabhutas*, we may represent the constitution of the *mahabhutas* as follows:—
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Ak = ak₄. (v₁. t₁. ap₁. e₁), ak₄ being the radicle.
V = v₄. (ak₁. t₁. ap₁. e₁), v₄ being the radicle.
T = t₄. (ak₁. v₁. ap₁. e₁), t₄ being the radicle.
Ap = ap₄. (ak₁. v₁ t₁ e₁), ap₄ being the radicle.
E = e₄. (ak₁. v₁. t₁. ap₁), e being the radicle.
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In forms of gross or complicated matter, the potential energies (qualities) become actualised. The *mahabhuta akasa* manifests sound; *vayu*, sound and mechanical energy; *tejas*, sound, mechanical energy and heat-light; *ap*, the energy of the taste-stimulus in addition; finally *earth*, the energy of the smell-stimulus added to the foregoing.
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Others hold that *akasa*, ether, never enters as a component part, and is always one and indivisible. In this view the four *mahabhutas*—*vayu*, *tejas*, *ap* and *earth alone* are supposed to be compounded, and by a process which may be called quaternion:—
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V = v₃. (t₁. ap₁. e₁)
T = t₃. (v₁. ap₁. e₁)
Ap = ap₃. (v₁. t₁. e₁)
E = e₃. (v₁. t₁. ap₁).
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These compound forms, as before, are supposed to exercise their specific energies actively. Others again hold that the *mahabhutas*—*tejas*, *ap* and *earth* alone are compounded by a process named : *trivrit-karana* (triplication). Thus T = t₂ (ap₁. e₁), Ap = ap₂. (t₁. e₁), E = e₂. (t₁. ap₁).
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The *sukshma bhutas* are forms of homogeneous and continuous matter, without any atomicity of structure; the *mahabhutas* are composite; but even these are regarded as continuous, and without any atomic structure. The Vedanta speaks of *anu* (*paramanu*) not as an ultimate indivisible discrete constituent of matter, but as the smallest conceivable quantum or measure of matter. In the Samkhya doctrine, the atomic structure is ordinarily accepted. The *gunas* are supposed to be bounded and indefinitely small in size (except the *gunas* giving rise to *akasa* and *manas* which are unlimited), and hence the *tanmatras* and *paramanus* must be conceived to have a discrete structure
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PARINAMA—EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS
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When the *mahabhutas* are once formed, the different kinds of substances are derived from them by the evolutionary process called *parinama* (transformation). Matter is constantly undergoing change of state. The effect is only the cause in a new collocation. Change is of two kinds:—
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(1) Change by a spontaneous process, without external influence, including isomeric change The Vedantists believe in spontaneous disintegration and reintegration. Action from without, impressed force *ab extra*, is not always a condition of change of state (whether of rest or of motion);—nor is it necessary that more than one substance should combine to generate another substance or variety of substances (e g., the formation of curds from milk, of ice from water, etc.).
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(2) Change due to combination with other substances Such combination may produce (i) a compound substance possessing like qualities with the constituents, or (ii) unlike compounds with new qualities, "heteropathic effects". Any new quality evolved through (chemical) combination is called *samhata bhuta-dharma*, e.g., the intoxicating power of the fermented rice and molasses, which does not exist in the ingredients taken separately. This *sambhuyakriya* corresponds to chemical combination, and the Vedantists, like the Samkhyas, explain this only as the evolution of the latent energy in a new collocation. But, unlike the mediaeval Samkhya, the Vedanta freely recognises the combination of heterogeneous *bhutas*. Thus, *earth*, *ap*, *tejas* and *vayu* freely combine in different proportions and groupings to produce the variety of substances in the world. For example, the animal organism is a compound of all the five *bhutas*. It is not merely the concomitant or efficient causes that may be heterogeneous to the material cause, as the Naiyayikas contend, but several heterogeneous substances (*bhutas*) may unite as 'material causes' to produce a new substance.
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The Vedantists resolve all activities, physical, vital, as well as psychical, into modes of motion, subtile cosmic motion.
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The Atomic Theory of the Buddhists
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The Vaibhashikas and the Sautrantikas hold that the *vayu-atoms* are touch-sensibles, having impact or pressure for their characteristic property, and by aggregation form the element *vayu*; the *tejas atoms* are colour-and-touch-sensibles, having heat for their characteristic, and by aggregation form the *tejas bhuta*; the *ap atoms* are taste-colour-and-touch-sensibles with a characteristic viscosity, and form the *ap element* by aggregation; and finally the *earth-atoms* are smell-taste-colour-and-touch-sensibles, possessing a characteristic dryness or roughness, and by their aggregation form the *earth-element*. The *bhutas* thus originated combine to form aggregates, which are classed as inorganic substances, organisms and organs.
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The Atomic Theory of the Jainas
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Of the nine categories of the Jainas, that of Ajīva (the not-Soul or non-Ego) consists of five entities, four of which are immaterial, viz., merit, demerit, space and time, and the fifth material. The last is called *pudgala* (matter), and this alone is the vehicle of Energy, which is essentially kinetic, i.e., of the nature of motion. Everything in the world of not-Soul (the non-Ego) is either an entity, or a change of state in an entity. *Pudgala* (matter) and its changes of state, whether of the nature of subtile motion or of Evolution, must furnish the *physical* as opposed to the *metaphysical* basis of all our explanations of Nature. *Pudgala* (matter) exists in two forms,—*aṇu* (atom) and *skandha* (aggregate). The Jainas begin with absolutely homogeneous mass of *pudgalas*, which, by differentiation, breaks up into several kinds of atoms qualitatively determined, and by differentiation, integration, and differentiation in the integrated, forms aggregates (*skandhas*). An *aṇu* has no parts, no beginning, middle or end. An *aṇu* is not only infinitesimal, but also eternal and ultimate. A *skandha* may vary from a binary aggregate to an infinitum. A binary *skandha* is an aggregate of two *aṇus* (atoms), a tertiary *skandha* is formed by the addition of an atom (*aṇu*) to the binary and so on *ad infinitum*. The ascending grades are (i) what can be numbered, (ii) indefinitely large, (iii) infinity of the first order, (iv) infinity of the second order, and so on.
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GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
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The specific characters of the *pudgalas* (Matter) are of two kinds, (i) those which are found in atoms as well as in aggregates, and (ii) those which are found only in aggregates. Qualities of touch, taste, smell, and colour come under the first head. The original *pudgalas* being homogeneous and indeterminate, all sensible qualities, including the infra-sensible qualities of atoms, are the result of evolution. Every atom thus evolved possesses an infra-sensible (or *potential*) taste, smell and colour, (one kind of each) and two infra-sensible tactile qualities, *e.g.*, a certain degree of roughness or smoothness (or dryness or moistness ?) and of heat or cold. *Earth-atoms*, *ap-atoms*, *etc* are but differentiations of the originally homogeneous *pudgalas* The tactile qualities appear first, but qualities of taste, smell and colour are involved in the possession of tactile qualities An aggregate (*skandha*), whether binary, tertiary, or of a higher order, possesses (in addition to touch, taste, smell and colour) the following physical characters :—(*a*) sound, (*b*) atomic linking, or mutual attraction and repulsion of atoms, (*c*) dimension, small or great, (*d*) figure, (*e*) divisibility, (*f*) opacity and casting of shadows, and (*g*) radiant heat and light.
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*Sensible qualities.* Tactile qualities are of the following kinds :—hardness or softness, heaviness or lightness (degrees of pressure), heat or cold, and roughness or smoothness (or dryness and viscosity). Of those, the atoms (*aṇus*) possess only temperature, and degrees of roughness or smoothness; but all the four kinds of tactile qualities in different degrees and combinations characterise aggregates of matter from the binary molecule upwards The Jainas appear to have thought that gravity was developed in molecules as the result of atomic linking Simple tastes are of five kinds,—bitter, pungent, astringent, saline and the sweet Salt is supposed by some to be resolvable into sweet, while others consider it as a compound taste. Smells are either pleasant or unpleasant The simple colours are five in number—black, blue, red, yellow and white Sounds may be classed as loud or faint, bass (thick) or treble (hollow), clang or articulate speech.
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The most remarkable contribution of the Jainas to the atomic theory relates to their analysis of atomic linking, or the mutual attraction (or repulsion) of atoms, in the formation of molecules The question is raised in Umasvati's *Jaina sutras* (circa A.D 40)—what constitutes atomic linking? Is mere contact (or juxtaposition) of atoms sufficient to cause linking? No distinction is here made between the forces that bind together atoms of the same *bhuta*, and the chemical affinity of one *bhuta* to another. The Jainas hold that the different classes of elementary substances (*bhutas*) are all evolved from the same primordial atoms. The intra-atomic forces, which lead to the formation of chemical compounds, do not, therefore, differ in kind from those that explain the original linking of atoms to form molecules.
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Mere juxtaposition is insufficient; linking of atoms or molecules must follow before a compound can be produced. The linking takes place under different conditions. Ordinarily speaking, one particle of matter must be negative, and the other positive; the two particles must have two peculiar opposite qualities, roughness and smoothness (dryness and viscosity ?), to make the linking possible. But no linking takes place, where the qualities, though opposed, are very defective or feeble. We have seen that, ordinarily speaking, two homogeneous particles, i.e., both positive, or both negative, do not unite. This is the case where the qualities are equal in intensity. But if the strength or intensity of the one is twice as great as that of the other, or exceeds that proportion, then even similar particles may be attracted to each other. In every case, change of state in both the particles is supposed to be the result of this linking, and the physical characters of the aggregate depend on the nature of this linking. When particles of equal intensity (negative and positive) modify each other, there is mutual action; in cases of unequal intensity the higher intensity transforms the lower, it being apparently thought that an influence proceeds from the higher to the lower. All changes in the qualities of atoms depend on this linking. This appears to be a crude anticipation of the ionic theory of chemical combinations, very crude but immensely suggestive, and possibly based on the observed electrification of smooth and rough surfaces as the result of rubbing. The Tattvarthadhigama of Umasvati, which expounds the theory, most probably dates back to the first half of the first century A.D.
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[This may be compared to the Berzelius's Dualistic Hypothesis of chemical combination.]
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The Nyaya-Vaiseshika Chemical Theory
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The relation of the specific characters of molecules (and higher aggregates) to the original atomic qualities is reduced in the Nyaya-Vaiseshika to certain canons, as embodied in their theory of atomic combination given below.
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THEORY OF ATOMIC COMBINATION
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The four kinds of atoms are *earth, ap, tejas,* and *vayu* atoms, possessed of characteristic mass, numerical unit, weight, fluidity (or its opposite), viscosity (or its opposite), velocity (or quantity of impressed motion—*vega*); also characteristic potential colour, taste, smell or touch, not produced by the chemical operation of heat *Akasa* has no atomic structure and is absolutely inert, being posited only as the substratum of sound, which is supposed to travel wave-like in the manifesting medium or vehicle of *vayu* (air). Only the other four *bhutas* unite (or disunite) in atomic or molecular forms. The orthodox view is that the presence of *earth-atoms* is necessary whenever chemical transformation under the operation of heat takesplace.
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Atoms cannot exist in uncombined state in creation They may combine in one or other of the following ways:—
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1. One *earth-atom*, by an original tendency, unites with another, to form a binary molecule. In the same way binary molecules of other *bhutas* are formed. The atoms are possessed of an inherent *parispanda* (rotary or vibratory motion), and when they unite in pairs, *so long as there is no chemical operation under the action of heat corpuscles*, the original qualities of the atoms produce homogenous qualities in the binary molecules.
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The question as to the existence of a triad, a tetrad, a pentad, etc. of atoms is one of the moot points of the Nyaya-Vaiseshika. The orthodox view is that the primordial infinitesimal particles (atoms) start with an incessant vibratory motion, and an inherent impulse that drives them to unite in pairs—a sort of ‘monovalency’, as it were, exhausted with the formation of a binary molecule. The binary molecules now combine by threes, fours, fives, etc. to form larger aggregates as the variety of elementary substances, the particular collocation in any case being not only determined by physical causes, but also serving to satisfy the ends of the moral law in creation.
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According to Kanada’s view, atoms have an inherent tendency to unite, but some unite in pairs, others in triads, others in tetrads, etc. This may happen in two ways,—either by the atoms falling into groups of threes, fours, etc. direct, or by the successive addition of one atom to each preceding aggregate.
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A triad (*tryanuka*), then, holds together three atoms (*anus*), not three binary molecules (*dvyanukas*) as on the orthodox hypothesis. Similarly with tetrads, pentads, etc.
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In Prasastapada’s view, these binary molecules are grouped by threes, fours, fives, etc. to form different isomeric modifications. The variety of Earth-substances is due to differences in the arrangements of the molecules (e.g., their greater or less density and, above all, their grouping or collocation), which account for the specific characters manifested by these isomeric substances.
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According to Udayana (in Kiranavali), these original differences in molecular grouping, leading to distinctions of genera and species, however mechanically or physically explained, come under the operation of moral and metaphysical causes, i e, of ideal ends in the moral government of the Universe, which are superimposed upon the physical order, but which do not come within the scope of Natural Philosophy. An elementary substance, thus produced by primary atomic combination, may, however, suffer qualitative change under the influence of heat. The process is as follows.—(1) The impact of heat corpuscles decomposes the binary (tertiary or quarternary) molecules into homogeneous atoms possessing only the generic characters of the *bhuta* concerned;—(2) the impacts of heat particles continue, and transform the characters of the atoms, determining them all in the same way;—(3) the heat particles continue to impinge, and reunite the atoms so transformed to form binary (or other) molecules in different orders or arrangements, which account for the specific characters or qualities finally produced. The Vaiseshika holds that there is decomposition into homogeneous atoms, transformation of atomic qualities, and finally recombination, all under the influence of heat. The Nyaya, on the other hand, thinks that the molecules and larger aggregates assume the new characters under the influence of heat without decomposition into homogeneous atoms, or change of atomic characters.
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CHEMICAL COMBINATION
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Chemical combination takes place either between two or more substances which are isomeric modifications of the same *bhuta*, or between substances which are modes of different *bhutas*.
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*A. Mono-Bhautic Compounds*—The simplest compounds are *mono-bhautic* compounds, i.e., compounds of different substances which are isomeric modes of the same *bhuta*.
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(a) *Mono-bhautic compounds of the first order*.—Under the impact or impulse of heat corpuscles, the substances in chemical contact break up into their atoms. These atoms are homogeneous, possessing only the original physical and chemical characters of the *bhuta* concerned. As the specific differences between isomeric substances arise from the arrangement or collocation of the atoms, the substances lose their distinctive marks on decomposition into the latter. Under the continued impact (or, it may be, impulse) of heat particles, these atoms take on new characters. It is heat and heat alone that can cause this transformation of the colours, tastes, smells, etc., in these original *bhuta-atoms*. What particular colours, tastes, smells or physical characters will be produced in the atoms depends on (1) the nature of the constituent substances in contact, (2) the intensity or degree of the heat, and (3) the species of *tejas-corpuscles* that impinge on the atoms, or the nature of the impact.
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Now when atoms have all been determined in the same way, they begin to recombine again under the impact (or impulse) of the heat particles, giving rise to binary molecules (or tertiary, etc.); and these then form higher aggregates. It seems to be generally held that at the final step one or more atoms of one constituent substance unite with one or more atoms of the other constituent substance or substances to form a molecule of the compound; but the question is not of much significance for *mono-bhautic* compounds of the first order; as in these cases, the atoms have before this all lost their distinctive characters and become homogeneously transformed. The compound so produced will possess the new characters of the transformed atoms, so far as taste, smell, etc. are concerned; but as the molecular arrangement or structure may vary, different compound substances may result from the same components.
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(b) *Mono-bhautic compounds of higher orders*:—Again, *mono-bhutic* compounds of the first order may chemically combine to form higher compounds, and as the ultimate *bhuta* substratum is the same, the process of decomposition and recomposition will be essentially the same as before. The only doubtful point is whether in this case the component compound substances are broken up only into their constituent molecules, or into the original homogeneous *bhuta-atoms*. Some of the later Vaisesnika scholiasts hold that the latter happens in every case of chemical composition, however complex; but the earlier Vaiseshika conceived that in the case of compounds of compounds, the decomposition does not proceed so far as the original *bhuta* atoms, but that it is the specifically determined atoms, constituting the molecules of the component compounds, that are transformed under the impact of the heat-corpuscles: and then one such transformed atom (one or more according to another version) from the molecule of one component unites with one similarly transformed atom (one or more according to the other version) from the molecule of the other component. In this hypothesis it is assumed that the atoms are similarly transformed, i e., become endowed with the colour, taste, smell, etc. of the product, the moment before the chemical combination takes place. Similarly, when milk is transformed into curd, one view is that the transformation takes place (under internal heat) in the constituent atoms of the milk molecules, atoms specifically determined as milk, and not in the original atoms of the *bhuta* (or *bhutas*) entering into the composition of milk. In these cases, the atomic contact is called "constituent contact", and all the atoms are equally regarded as material causes of the compound.
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B. *Hetero-Bhautic Quasi Compounds:*—The Nyaya-Vaiseshika maintains that in the case of *bi-bhautic* (or *poly-bhautic*) compounds, which are only quasi-compounds, there is another kind of contact between the heterogeneous atoms of the different *bhutas*; this may be called "dynamic contact". In some cases, it so happens that the atoms of different isomeric modes of the same *bhuta* do not chemically combine under the mere application of heat;—they require to be surrounded (and 'excited' or 'energised') by atoms of different *bhutas*. For example, in the case of the oils and fats, as well as of plant saps and fruit juices, the Earth-atoms must be dissolved in water (*ap*), and it is only when the water-atoms (*ap*-atoms) congregate round the former that dynamic intra atomic forces are set up, and the Earth-atoms (with the water atoms in dynamic contact) now take on peculiar infra-sensible characters (colours, tastes, smells) under the impact of the heat-corpuscles, and then, under further impact, fall into groupings or collocations (of a very peculiar nature to be presently explained) which determine the nature of the composite substance thus produced. Here it is the water-atoms that are dynamic, and excite the Earth atoms, and these substances, oils and fats, as well as acids, are, because of the Earth-radicles, regarded as Earth-compounds (or Earth-substances). In the above instances, *ap* (water) acts as dynamic, but *tejas* and *vayu* can also act in the same way on Earth-particles. Conversely, Earth-particles may act dynamically on the atoms of the other *bhutas*. For example, in the case of mercury and the metals which are conceived in the Nyaya-Vaiseshika to be igneous bodies (in fact they are supposed to be formed under the subterranean heat), the *tejas* corpuscles are believed to form the radicles, and the Earth-particles are dynamic.
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It was also believed that even gold can be evaporated and made to disappear by the application of intense heat. But while every *bhuta* can act dynamically as exciter or energiser, it is the earth *bhuta* alone which is capable of exercising the power of arrest or inhibition of molecular motion, or the motion of particles due to gravity as in fluids, or the power of counter-acting the tendency in a given set of atoms to fall into a peculiar order or group.
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*Oils, Fats, Milks—Dı-bhautic quasi-compounds, with ap as energiser:*—Oleaginous substances are divided by Udayana into (1) oils, derived from vegetables, (2) butters, derived from milk, and (3) fats, derived from animals. The medical schools, as we have seen, recognise animal oils as distinguished from vegetable oils. Vegetable fats are also mentioned. Vachaspati in the Tatparyyatika contends that mustard oil has not the flavour and smell characteristic of the true oils (sesamum, linseed, etc.), and is classed with the latter by convention. Judged by the flavour test, *amiksha* (the casein substance formed by mixing milk-curd with hot boiled milk) is to be classed with milk-substances. So also *takra*, whey,—but *vajina*, the thin fluid that is left after the *amīksha* (casein substance) is separated, cannot be classed as milk. It may be added that the milks and curds, as well as oils and fats derived from different species of vegetables or animals, are supposed to differ in their ultimate structural arrangement and therefore in kind; but Vallabha thinks that the *ghees* (clarified butters), prepared from different kinds of milk, are of the same kind; in other words, the milks and curds are 'polymeric', the ghees (clarified butters), 'isomeric', using these terms as before in a loose general sense. Vallabha notes that *ghees* do not differ in kind, as milks and curds do.
Linked texts (2)
- Padārthadharmasaṅgraha — Praśastapāda, Sanskrit
- Tattvārthasūtra — Umāsvāti, Sanskrit